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AGENTS  FOR  THE  SALE  OF  MADRAS  GOVERNMENT 
PUBLICATIONS. 


IN  INDIA. 

A.  C.  Rarraud  &  Co.  (Late  A.  J.  Combridge  &  Co.),  Madras. 

R.  Cambray  &  Co.,  Calcutta. 

E.  M.  GoPALAKRlSHNA  KoNE,  PudumaiUapam,  Madura. 

HiGGi.NBOTHAMS  (Ltd.),  MouDt  Road,  Madras. 

V.  Kalvanarama  Iyer  &  Co.,  Esplanade,  Madras. 

G.  C.  LoGANATHAM  BROTHERS,  Madras. 

S.  MURTHY  &  Co.,  Madras. 

G.  A.  Natesan  &  Co.,  Madras. 

The  Superintendent,  Nazair  Kanun  Hinu  Press,  .Mlahabad. 

P.  R.  Rama  Iyar  &  Co.,  Madras. 

D.  B.  Taraporevala  Sons  &  Co.,  Bombay. 

Thacker  &  Co.  (Ltd.),  Bombay. 

Thacker,  Spink  &  Co.,  Calcutta. 

S.  Vas  &  Co.,  Madras. 


IN   ENGLAND. 

B.  H.  BlaCkwell,  so  and  51,  Broad  Street,  O.xford. 

Constable  &  Co.,  10,  Orange  Street,  Leicester  Square,  London,  W.C. 

Deighton,  Bell  &  Co.  (Ltd.),  Cambridge. 

T.  Fisher  Unwin  (Ltd.),  i,  Adelplii  Terrace,  London,  W.C. 

Grindlav  &  Co.,  54,  Parliament  Street,  London,  S.W. 

Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.  (Ltd.),  68—74,   Carter    Lane,    Londc 

E.C.  and  25,  Museum  Street,  London,  W.C. 
Henry  S.  King  &  Co. ,  65,  Cornhill,  London,  E.C. 

P.  S.  King  &  Son,  2  and  4,  Great  Smith  Street,  Westminster,  London,  S.W. 
Luzac  &  Co.,  46,  Great  Russell  Street,  London,  W.C. 
B.  QuARiTCH,  II,  Grafton  Street,  New  Bond  Street,  London,  W. 
W.  Thacker  &  Co.,  2,  Creed  Lane,  London,  E.C. 


ON  THE  CONTINENT. 

ErnkST  Leroux,  iS,  Rue  Bonaparte,  Paris. 
Maktinus  Nijhoff,  The  Hague,  Holland. 


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V 


MADRAS   DISTRICT  GAZETTEERS 


CUDDAPAH 

VOLUME   I 


R.  CAMBRAY  &  CO. 

Law  &  Oriental  Booksellers 
and  Publishers, 
CALCUTTA. 


MADRAS    DISTRICT   GAZETTEERS 


CUDDAPAH 


C.   F.  BRACKENBURV 

INDIAN    CIVIL    SERVICK 


MADRAS 
t'klNTEb    BY  THE  SUPERINTENDENT.  GOVERNMENT  PRESS 


1915 


NOTE. 

The  villages  of  Idupulapaya,  Chilakampalle  and  Marella- 
madaka  mentioned  on  pages  163,  214  and  217  of  this  volume 
were  transferred  from  the  Pulivendla  to  the  RayachOti  taluk 
under  Notification  No.  329,  dated  13th  May  1914,  published  on 
page  931  of  Part  I  of  the  Fort  St.  George  Gazette,  dated  23rd 
June  1914. 


Btacl- 
Anne^ 


PREFACE. 


A  "  Manual "  of  the  Cuddapah  district,  as  then  consti- 
tuted, was  compiled  by  the  late  Mr.  J.  D.  B.  Gribble,  I.C.S.. 
in  1875.  The  present  gazetteer  is  prepared  on  different 
lines,  and  exigencies  of  form  and  matter  have  necessitated 
the  omission  of  much  that  is  still  of  interest  in  the  old 
manual,  which  has  thus  not  been  revised  so  much  as  jjartially 
replaced.  Statistics  are  under  the  present  system  relegated 
as  far  as  possible  to  a  separate  volume  of  Appendices,  which 
it  is  proposed  to  revise  decennially,  after  every  census. 

Where  so  many  have  assisted  me  in  the  collection  of 
material  for  this  book  it  would  be  invidious  to  name  a  few. 
My  thanks  are  due  to  them  all,  officials  and  others,  for  their 
prompt  replies  to  my  demands  for  information  of  all  kinds, 
without  which  I  could  ne\er  have  completed  the  work  while 
engaged  in  the  resettlement  of  another  district. 

Settlement  Office, 

Chittook,  C.  F.  brag  ken  bury. 

October  /,  1^14. 


5002004 


PLAN   OF  CONTENTS. 


Chapter  page 

I.  Physical  Description     ...         ...  ...  .  i — 23 

II.  Political  History  ..."       ...  ...  .  24 51 

III.  The  People           ...  52 — 71 

IV.  Agriculture  AND  Irrigation     ...  ...  ...  72 91 

V.  Forests     ...         ...         ...         ...  ...  ..  _       92 — 107 

VI.  Occupation  AND  Trade               ...  ...  .,  108— 117 

VII.  Means  of  Communication          ...  ...  .  uS — 124 

VIII.  Rainfall  AND  Seasons    ...         ...  ...  ...  125 — 138 

IX.  Public  Health     ...   139 — 142 

X.  Education  ...  143 — 14^ 

XI.  Land  Revenue  Administration  ...  ...  146 — 160 

XII.  Salt,  Abkari  and  Miscellaneous  Revenue  ...  161 — 165 

XIII.  Administration  OF  Justice        ...  ...  ...  ...   166 — 173 

XIV.  Local  Self-Government            ...  ...  ...  ...   174 — 176 

XV.  Gazetteer —         ...         ...         ...  ...  ...  ...   177^ — 247 

Cuddapah  taluk               ...          ...  ...  ij7 

Jammalamadugu  taluk    ...          ...  ...  ...  ...              187 

Proddatur  taluk  ...          ...          ...  ...  ...  ...              ig6 

Kamalapuram  taluk        ...          ...  ...  ...  ...              204 

Pulivendla  taluk             ...          ...  ...  ..  .                20S 

Rayachoti  taluk  ...          ...          ...  .  ...  ...              217 

Badvel  taluk        ...          ...          ...  ...  ...  ..               225 

Sidhout  taluk        ..          ...          ...  ...  ...  ...              234 

Pullampet  taluk  ...          ...          ...  ...  ...  ...              240 

Index          249 


SYNOPSIS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION. 


PAGE 


General — Natural  divisions— Rivers — The  western  division — 
The  southern  division — The  eastern  division  Soils. 
Climax  e — Rainfall — Temperature — Humidity — Winds. 
Geology— Two  distinct  rock  areas — Of  crystalline  rocks — 
Of  stratified  rocks — Concealed  by  recent  deposits — Upland 
rugged  with  scattered  hill  masses — Low  C(  untry  of  hill- 
divided  plains — Granitoid  gneiss — Granite  veins — Trap 
dykes — Brecciated  quartz  reefs — Sub-metaniorphic  series 
of  Cuddapah  and  Kuinool — Cuddapah  formation — In 
south-east  taluks — Cheyyer  group — Cheyyers  in  the 
Pulivendla  taluk,  volcanic — P^paghni  group,  oldest — Fault- 
ing near  Cuddapah— Warm  sj  rings— Nallamalai  group — 
Metalliferous — Cuddapah  town  on  rocks  of  the  Kuinool 
formation — Kunder  series  of  limestones — Narji  beds — 
Banganapalle  group  of  quartzites — Alluvium,  soils,  etc. — 
Implement  gravels — Blown  sands  of  Penner — Industrial 
products — Diamonds — Iron  ore — Lead  ore — Copper — 
Building  materials — Limestones — Lime — Slates — Sand- 
stones, etc Gneiss,  etc.  FLORn,  Fauna — Cattle — Buffaloes, 

Sheep  and  Goats — Game — Quadrumana      ...  ...  ...  1-23 

CHAPTER  IL 
POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

Introductory — Prehistoric      remains — The      Deccan    politically 
isolated    in      earliest     historical     times — Earliest      known 
dynasties— The  Banas— The   Rashtrakutas— The  Vaidum- 
bas  — R'se    of  the   C'holas — The    eastern    division   of  the 
district— The  Telugu   Chodas— The   Kakatiyas   of  Waran- 
gal — First      Muhammadan       invasion — The     Vijayanagar 
Empire -Rise  of  the   Poligars — The  Matla  princes— 1  he 
Nawabs  of  Cuddapah— Haidar  AH  of  Mysore— Transfer  of 
Cuddapah  to  the  British— The  work  of  Munro— The  Poligars 
and  their  reduction — Conclusion       ...  ...  ...  •■•          24-51 

h 


SYNOPSIS. 

CHAPTER  m. 
THE  PEOPLE. 


PAGE 


The  Census — Density  and  growth  of  the  population — Deficiency 
of  females — Language — Education — Occupations — Reli- 
gions. The  Christians — The  Roman  Catholic  Mission 
— The  London  Mission — The  S.P.G.  Mission — The 
Lutheran  Mission.  The  Musalmans — Their  relaticns 
with  Hindus.  The  Hindus — Villages — Houses — Dress — 
Food — Amusements.  Religious  Life — The  Village  Deities 
— PecuHar  religious  practices  and  superstitions.  Social 
Life — The  more  numerous  castes — Tribes — Beggars        ...         52-71 

CHAPTER  IV. 

AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION. 

Introductory.  Wet  Cultivation — Paddy — Ragi — Sugarcane — 
Garden  crops.  Dry  Cultivation — The  guntaka  or 
scuflRe — The  gorru  or  drill — Weeding — Practices  peculiar 
to  the  "  black  cotton  "  country — The  pedda  madaka  or  big 
plough — Harvesting — Cattle  food — Modern  changes.  Irri- 
gation— General — River  channels — Tanks — Wells.  Irri- 
gation Works — The  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal — The 
Chapad  and  Maidukuru  Projects — The  Sagiler  Project. 
Economic  Condition  of  Agriculturists — Indebtedness 
of  the  ryot        ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  72-91 

CHAPTER  V. 

FORESTS. 

Forests — Their  situation  and  area — Administration.  Char- 
acter OF  THE  Forests — The  Redsanders  tree — Its  uses — 
Summary.  Conservancy — Prior  to  the  Madras  Forest  Act 
of  1882 — Subsequent  operations.  Recent  Working 
Plans — Fuel — Timber.  Work  in  Progress — Fiiel  opera- 
tions— Timber  operations — Sandal  sowing — Minor  forest 
produce — Grazing  and  goat  browsing — Forest  offences 
— Fire  Protection — Stream  bunding — Cart  tracks  and  bridle 
paths — Demarcation — Planting  and  sowing  ...  ...       92-107 

CHAPTER  VL 

OCCUPATION    AND   TRADE. 

Agriculture.  Arts  and  Industries — Textile — Condition  of 
weavers  —Cotton-weaving—  Silk-weaving — Blankets  and 
rugs — Cotton-printing  and  dyeing — Shoe-making — Wood — 


SYNOPSIS  xi 

PAGE 

Metal — Stone — Other  occupations.  Factories.  Trade — 
Exports — Imports.  Weights  and  Measures — Table  of 
weight — Grain  measures — Liquid  measures — Lineal  mea- 
sures— Measures  of  time       ...         ,.,         ...         ...         ...     1 08-1 17 

CHAPTER  VII. 
MKANS  OF  COMMUNICATION. 

Roads — In  1854 — Extension  during  famines — Present  adminis- 
tration— Avenues — Travellers'  bungalows  and  choultries. 
The  Canal.     Railways — Projected  lines — Accidents       ...      1 18-124 

CHAPTER  VIIL 

RAINFALL  AND  SEASONS. 

Rainfall — Liability  to  famine.  Early  Scarcities.  The  Great 
Famine  OF  1876 — 78 — Series  of  bad  seasons — Beginnings 
of  distress  in  July  1876 — Relief  works  opened  in  Septem- 
ber— Prices  suddenly  rise  in  October — December  1876  ; 
serious  famine — Deputation  of  Sir  Richard  Temple — His 
views  in  regard  to  Cuddapah — Distress  increases  in  1877 — 
June  to  August  1877 — Rainfalls  in  September — The  cost 
of  the  famine.  Scarcities  subsequent  to  the  Great 
Famine.  The  famine  of  1891-92 — The  famine  of  1896-97. 
Floods — In  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century — Great 
Storm  of  185 1 — Excessive  rains  in  1874 — The  floods 
in  1903  •••  125-138 

CHAPTER  IX. 
PUBLIC    HEALTH. 

General  Health — Plague — Cholera — Small-pox — Malaria — 
Infirmities — Vaccination.  Medical  Institutions — Public 
— Private         ...         ...     139-142 

CHAPTER  X. 
EDUCATION. 

Census  Statistics— Progress  since  1901 — Education  according 
to  religions.  Educational  Institutions — High  schools — 
Lower  Secondary   schools — Education  by  the  missions   ...     145-145 

c 


xii  SYNOPSIS 

CHAPTER  XL 
LAND  REVENUE   ADMINISTRATION. 


PAGE 


Revenue  History — -Under  Vijayanagar — In  the  17th  century 
under  the  Muhammadans — In  the  iSth  century — The  village 
settlement  of  1800-01 — Ryotwari  settlement  of  1801-02 — 
Triennial  leases  proposed — Munro's  views  thereon — He 
proposes  to  reduce  the  existing  ryotwari  rates — Early  opera- 
tions of  the  Settlement  Department.  The  Re-s"ettle- 
MENT — Mr.  Moir's  reports — Dry  lands — Wet  lands — The 
Subdivision — Dasabandham  wells — Financial  results. 
Existing  Divisional  Charges         ...         ...         ...         ...     146-160 

CHAPTER  XII. 
SALT,  ABKARI  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE. 

Salt — Former  sources  of  supply — Earth  salt  ;  method  of  manu- 
facture— Its  interference  with  monopoly  salt — Its  manu- 
facture suppressed.  Present  sources  of  supply.  Abkari — 
Arrack — Foreign  liquors — Toddy — Opium  and  hemp  drugs 
— The  preventive  force.     Income-tax.     Stamps  ...  ...     161-165 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

Civil  Justice — Village  Munsifs — District  Munsifs — The  District 
Court — Litigation  rare — Registration.  Criminal  Justice — 
Crime — Police — Jails — Some  sensational  crimes     ...  ...      166-173 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT. 

The  Local  Boards — Their  constitution — The  Unions — Receipts 
of  the  Boards — Their  expenditure.  Municipal  Govern- 
ment    ...  ...  ...  ...         ...  ...  ...          ...     174-176 

CHAPTER  XV. 

GAZETTEER. 

CuDDAPAH  Taluk — Cuddapah — Chennur — Vallur — Pushpagiri 
— Pendlimarri  — Chinnadasaripalle  — Chintakommadinne — 
Khajipeta-sunkesula — Nandimandalam.  Jammalamadugu 
Taluk — J  a  m  m  a  lam  adugu — Peddamudiyam — Kodur — 
Gandikota — Gandiur —  Tallaproddatur — Yetur — Muddanur. 
Proddatur       Taluk — ProddatOr — Duvvur — Vanipenta — 


SYNOPSIS  XlU 

PAGE 

Kamanur — RamSswaram — K  o  r  r  a  p  a  d — Settivaripalle — 
Mudireddipalle.  Kamat.apuram  Taluk — Kamalapuram — 
Palagiri — U  p  p  a  1  u  r — Animela — Nidujuvvi — Yerraguntla. 
PuLivENDLA  Taluk — Vempalle — Pulivendla — Parnapalle — 
Vemula — Chilekampalle — Balapanur — Yerrabala — Siniha- 
dripuram — PeddakOdala — Marellamadaka.  Rayachoti 
Taluk — Rayachoti — Tsundupalle — Lakkireddipalle —  Gali- 
vadu — Nulivedu — Sanipaya — V  I  r  a  b  a  1 1  i— Vangimalla — 
Gadikota  — Matli — Chinnamandem.  Badvel  Taluk — 
Badvel — P  o  r  u  m  a  m  i  1 1  a — Sankhavaram — Kalasapad — 
Kottakcta — Munelli — Palugurallapalle.  Sidhout  Taluk — 
Siddhavattam — Vontimitta  -  Madhavaram — Kuruguntapalle 
— Kotapod — Obulam —  Kondur — Yappirala —  Gangaperur. 
Pullampet  T  a  l  u  k — Rajampet — Pullampet — Chitvel 
— Pottapi — Kodur—  Settigunta — Nandalur — Pedda  Oram- 
pad — Chinna  Orampad — Penagalur — Tangatur  ...      177-247 


GAZEl'TEER 


OF   THE 


CUDDAPAH    DISTRICT 


CHAPTER  I. 

PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION. 


General — Natural  divisions — Rivers — The  western  division — The 
southern  division — The  eastern  division.  Soils.  Climate — 
Rainfall — Temperature — Humidity — Winds.  Geology — Two  ' 
distinct  rock  areas — Of  crystalline  rocks — Of  stratified  rocks — 
Concealed  by  recent  deposits  — Upland  rugged  with  scattered 
hill  masses — Low  country  of  hill-divided  plains — Granitoid 
gneiss — Granite  veins — Trap  dykes — Brecciated  quartz  reefs — 
Sub-metamorphic  series  of  Cuddapah  and  Kurnool — Cuddapah 
formation — In  south-east  taluks— Cheyyer  group — Cheyyers  in 
the  Pulivendla  taluk,  volcanic — Papaghni  group,  oldest — 
Faulting  near  Cuddapah — Warm  springs — Nallamalai  group — 
Metalliferous — Cuddapah  town  on  rocks  of  the  Kurnool  forma- 
tion— Kunder  series  of  limestones — Narji  beds — IJanganapalle 
group  of  qnartzites — Alluvium,  soils,  etc. — ^Implement  gravels — 
Blown  sands  of  Penner — Industrial  products — Diamonds — 
Iron  ore — Lead  ore — Copper — Building  materials — Limestones 
—Lime — Slates — Sandstones,  etc. — Gneiss,  etc,  Flora, 
Fauna — Cattle— Buffaloes,  Sheep  and  Goats — Game — 
Quadrumana. 

The   district   of  Cuddapah    till  recently    ranked   second    in     CHAP.  I. 
point    of   size    among  the  Collcctorates  of  the   Madras  Prcsi-    General. 

dency.     By  the  recent  retlistribution  of  districts,  which  chiefly         

affected  the  tract  comprising  the  old  districts  of  Cuddapah 
and  North  Arcot,  the  former  lost  three  taluks  represent- 
ing an  extent  of  2,839  square  miles,  nearly  33  per  cent,  of 
its  total  area.     Of  these  taluks  Kadiri,  the  largest,  was  on 


CUDDAPAH 


Natural 
divisions. 


CHAP.  I.    October  I,  1910,  incorporated  with   the  adjoining  district  of 
General.    Anantapur  on  the  west,    while   Madanapalle  and  Vayalpad 

were  absorbed  by  the  new  district  of  Chittoor,  which  came 

into  being  on  April  I,  1911.  With  this  change,  so  largely 
conducive  to  administrative  convenience,  Cuddapah  loses 
much  of  its  diversity,  though  the  taluk  of  Rayachoti  still 
serves  to  point  the  distinction  which  marked  off  the  "  sub- 
division "  from  the  "  main  division  "  of  the  old  district.  As 
now  constituted  the  district  lies  between  13°  43'  and  15°  14'  N., 
and  Tj"^  51'  and  ^<^^  29'  E.,  with  an  area  of  5,884  square  miles. 
Each  of  its  sides  is  bordered  by  a  single  district  :  Kurnool  on 
the  north,  Chittoor  on  the  south,  Nellore  on  the  east  and 
Anantapur  on  the  west. 

It  contains  nine  taluks  which  may  be  said  to  form 
themselves  roughly  into  three  natural  divisions,  the  first  of 
which,  consisting  of  Jammalamadugu,  Proddatur,  Kamala- 
puram,  Cuddapah  and  Pulivendla  taluks,  adjoins  the  Kurnool 
and  Anantapur  districts  and  contains  large  areas  of  black 
cotton  soil ;  the  second  comprises  Rayachoti  taluk  on  the 
plateau,  facing  the  districts  of  Anantapur  on  the  west  and 
Chittoor  on  the  south  ;  and  the  third  is  made  up  of  the  three 
taluks  of  Badvel,  Sidhout  and  PuUampet,  which  constitute  a 
fairly  well  defined  valley  separated  from  Nellore  district  by 
the  Veligonda  hills,  and  from  the  rest  of  Cuddapah  on  the 
west  by  a  somewhat  similar  but  more  broken  range  extending 
from  the  spurs  of  the  Nallamalais  from  Kurnool  in  the  north 
to  the  Palkonda  and  Seshachalam  range  which  terminates  in 
the  south  at  the  famous  hill  of  Tirupati. 
Rivers.  The  whole  of  the  district  drains  into  one  river,  the  Penner. 

This  runs  from  west  to  east  and  passes  into  Nellore  district 
by  the  gap  in  the  Eastern  Ghats  at  Somasila.  Its  chief  tri- 
butaries from  the  north  are  the  Kuncler  and  Sagiler,  which 
flow  respectively  through  Proddatur  and  the  taluks  of 
Badvel  and  Sidhout,  while  from  the  plateau  it  receives  three 
important  streams,  the  Chitravati  furthest  west,  and  the 
Papaghni  and  Cheyyer,  both  of  which  pass  through  the  taluk 
of  Rayachoti.  All  these  streams  have  their  original  sources 
outside  the  district.  The  Chitravati  rises  near  Nandidrug  in 
the  Mysore  State,  and  for  most  of  its  course  runs  through 
Anantapur  district.  It  joins  the  Penner  in  the  north-west 
corner  of  Cuddapah  district  in  the  Jammalamadugu  taluk. 
The  Papaghni  also  has  its  source  in  Mysore  and  enters 
Rayachoti  taluk  at  a  point  not  far  from  the  trijunction  of  the 
three  districts  of  Cuddapah,  Chittoor  and  Anantapur.  Piercing 
the   Palkondas   near  Vempalle   it    joins   the    Penner    about 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION 


two  miles  north-east  of  Kamalapuram.  The  Kunder  rises  in 
Kurnool,  and  drains  the  great  cotton  soil  plains  which  stretch 
between  Nandyal  in  that  district  and  Proddatur  in  Cuddapah. 
The  Sagiler  springs  from  the  higher  peaks  of  the  Nallamalai 
hills  not  far  from  Cumbum  in  Kurnool  district  and  in  Cud- 
dapah flows  in  a  deep  channel  along  a  narrow  valley.  The 
Cheyyer  rises  within  the  Chittoor  district  under  the  name  of 
the  Bahudanadi,  and  after  being  fed  by  several  smaller 
streams,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Pinchanadi,  flows 
through  the  Seshachalam  hills  and  the  rich  valley  which 
once  formed  the  petty  chiefship  of  Chitvel,  and  falls  into  the 
Penner  not  far  from  the  eastern  limit  of  the  district.  None  of 
these  streams  is  in  any  sense  perennial.  They  are  filled  from 
the  drainage  of  bare,  rocky  country  devoid  of  heavy  forests 
and  consequently  become  torrents  for  a  few  days  and  then  as 
suddenly  dwindle  to  thin  trickles  of  water  flowing  through 
wide  sandy  beds. 

The  five  taluks  of   Jammalamadugu,  Proddatur,  Kamala- 
puram, Cuddapah     and    Pulivendla  form  perhaps  the  least 
picturesque  part  of  the  district.     The   monotonous  contour  of 
their  hills,  of  insignificant  proportions,  lends  but  little  distinc- 
tion to  the  dead  level  of  the  intervening  plains  of  black  cotton 
soil,  while  the  intractable   nature  of  the  rocks  and  the  inces- 
sant  depredations  of   mankind  have  thwarted  the  efforts  of 
nature  to  cover  their  nakedness.     A  few  trees  growing  round 
village  sites,  a  fringe  of  stunted  babools  round  some  tank-bed, 
and  here  and  there  a  tope  of  mango  or  tamarind  trees  afford 
the  only  relief  to  the  eye.    To  the  dull  uniformity  of  the  scenery 
there  are  however  some  striking  exceptions.     At  Gandikota, 
six  miles  west  of  Jammalamadugu,  is  the  great  gorge  where  the 
Penner  has  cut  its  way  through  sheer  rugged  cliff's  of   bedded 
sandstone  200  or  300  feet  high  crowned  on  the  southern  bank 
by  a  picturesque  old  fortress  where  Hindu  and  Musalman  held 
successive  sway.     It  is  not  easy  of  access,  but  the  interesting 
and  extensive  remains  of  the  old  fort  and  its  enclosures  and 
the  magnificent  view  to  be  had  from  its  battlements  or  from 
the  roof  of  the  old  State  granary  sufficiently   repay  a  visit. 
Scarcely  less  famous  is  the  passage  of  the  Papaghni  through 
the  Palkonda  range  near  Vempalle.     Here  the  hills  attain  a 
height  of  nearly  two    thousand  feet,  and   the  river  takes  a 
winding   course  between  towering  cliffs  till  it  emerges  in  the 
plain   that    stretches  towards  Cuddapah.     The  legend   runs 
that  when  the    news   of   Rama's   victory  over   Ravana    was 
brought,  a  triumphal  wreath   of   gold    was  hung   across   the 
gorge,  and    it  is  said  that  its  semblance,  which  is    only  seen 


CHAP.  I. 

GeNERALi 


The  western 
division. 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I. 
General. 


The  southern 
division. 


The  eastern 
division. 


at  the  approach  of  death  by  those  whom  the  gods  love, 
appeared  to  Sir  Thomas  Munro  on  his  last  journey  to 
Cuddapah. 

Separated  by  the  Palkonda  range  of  hills  from  the  northern 
part  of  the  district,  at  an  altitude  of  from  1,000  to  1,500  feet 
above  the  plain,  is  the  taluk  of  Rayachoti,  the  sole  remnant  of 
the  old  "  sub-division  "  of  which  it  has  been  said  that  it  differs 
so  materially  in  general  aspect  and  character  from  the  "  main 
division,"  that  for  climate,  cultivation  and  condition,  they 
might  be  in  different  degrees  of  latitude.  From  the  foot  of 
the  Palkondas  this  taluk  forms  a  gentle  upward  slope  towards 
the  south  till  it  culminates  in  the  Mysore  plateau,  undulating 
so  continuously  throughout  its  extent  that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  find  in  the  whole  a  perfectly  level  mile  of  ground.  Isolated 
hills  and  masses  of  rock  stud  the  country,  some  of  which, 
though  they  present  a  rugged  and  inclement  appearance,  are 
not  devoid  of  a  certain  grandeur.  The  soil  is  mostly  red  and 
of  a  poor  quality,  having  but  little  depth,  and  the  country 
presents  an  aspect  of  dryness  and  want  of  vegetation,  which 
is  but  seldom  relieved  by  an  adequate  and  timely  rainfall. 

The  eastern  division  of  the  Cuddapah  district,  consisting 
of  the  three  taluks  of  Badvel,  Sidhout  and  PuUampet,  form  a 
rough  parallelogram  of  about  140  miles  from  north  to  south 
with  a  maximum   breadth    of   33    miles.     In   one  respect  the 
division  is  unique  in  that  it   has    natural  and   well   defined 
frontiers  throughout  except   on  the  north  where  an   irregu- 
lar and  artificial  line  divides  it  from  the  Cumbum  taluk  of 
Kurnool.    About  fifteen  miles  north  of  Renigunta  a  narrow  gap 
in  the  Tirupati  hills  near  Balapalle  leads  the  railway  line  into 
the  Pullampet  taluk.     From  this  point  the  hills  divide.     On 
the  right  the  Veligonda   range  runs  in  an  unbroken   line  into 
the  Kurnool  district  with  a  general  north-north-west  direction 
and  separates  the  division  from  Nellore.     On  the  left  the  great 
range  of  the  Seshachalams,  a  much   denser  mass  of  hills  of 
which  the  highest  point  rises  3,739  feet  above  sea  level,  divides 
the  Pullampet  and  Sidhout  taluks  from  the  upland.    Forcing  its 
way  through  these  hills  by  a  narrow  pass  famous  for  the  beauty 
of  its  scenery  the  Cheyyer  enters  the  low  country  and  after 
crossing  the  railway  just  south  of  Nandalur  continues  east- 
wards as  far  as  Tangatur  where  it  takes  a  sharp  turn  and 
proceeds  northwards  to  join  the  Penner  in  Sidhout  taluk  near 
the  village  of  Madhavaram.     West  of  the  confluence  lies  the 
Vontimitta  valley  formed  by  confused  spurs  thrown  off  by  the 
Palkonda  range,  which  soon  afterwards  turns  definitely  west- 
wards  to  form   the   northern   boundary  of  Rayachoti  taluk, 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION  § 

thus  leaving  a   clear  approach   to  Cuddapah   but  one  of  no     CHAF.  I. 
great  breadth,  for  the  march  of  the  hills  continues  northwards     General. 

till  they  rise  abruptly   in    an  imposing  and   solid    mass   north  

of  the  Penner  river  where  they  are  known  as  the  Lankamalais. 
Some  twenty  miles  north  of  the  river  this  great  range  suddenly 
dips  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  plain,  the  road  from  Proddatur 
to  Badvel  passing  over  a  low  ghat  at  their  base.  To  the 
north  of  this  two  low  ridges  encircle  the  Jangamrazupalle 
valley  but  gradually  coalesce  and  swell  into  the  great  north 
and  south  system  of  elevations  and  depressions  known  as 
the  Nallamalais  which  stretch  beyond  this  district  through 
Kurnool  to  the  Kistna.  In  rough  outline  therefore  these  taluks 
form  a  depression  between  two  hill  ranges.  This  is,  however, 
itself  broken  by  minor  undulations,  some  of  which  have  been 
so  denuded  that  mere  humps  of  disintegrated  rock  now  remain, 
while  others  rise  as  abrupt  hogbacked  ridges.  Most  noticeable 
is  the  long  ridge  running  from  Kalasapad  to  the  Penner 
parallel  to  the  eastern  ghats  and  enclosing  a  narrow  valley 
wherein  lie  the  great  tanks  of  Porumamilla  and  Badvel.  In 
Sidhout  taluk  this  valley  is  named  after  its  most  important 
village,  Obulam.  Still  further  south  a  less  elevated  and  more 
irregular  group  of  hills  marks  off  the  historic  valley  of  Chitvel 
from  the  rest  of  the  Pullampet  taluk. 

The  soils  of  the  whole  district  have  been  regarded  by  the  Soils. 
Settlement  Department  as  falling  into  the  two  main  series  of 
regar  and  red  ferruginous.  The  presence  of  a  large  area  of 
black  cotton  soil  has  already  been  mentioned  as  a  predomi- 
nant characteristic  of  the  four  taluks  that  abut  on  the 
districts  of  Anantapur  and  Kurnool.  As  we  go  eastwards 
through  the  taluks  of  Pulivendla,  Kamalapuram  and  Cudda- 
pah, the  black  cotton  soil  disappears  and  we  find  the  regar 
element  less  and  less  conspicuous  till  in  the  eastern  division 
of  the  district  it  represents  scarcely  a  fifth  of  the  assessed 
area,  while  in  the  upland  taluk  of  Rayachoti  over  90  per  cent, 
of  the  soil  is  red  ferruginous.  There  are  three  distinct  regions 
in  which  the  black  cotton  soil  is  found.  It  attains  its  finest 
development  to  the  north  of  Jammalamadugu  and  Proddatur, 
where  it  can  sometimes  be  seen  to  reach  a  depth  of  twenty 
feet,  though  its  maximum  depth  is  probably  much  greater. 
Towards  the  Koilkuntla  frontier  it  is  also  of  excellent  quality 
but  thinner  as  the  underlying  rocks  keep  cropping  up  to 
the  surface.  Next  comes  the  wide  plain  round  Yerraguntla 
extending  south-west  across  the  Pulivendla  frontier.  Much 
of  the  soil  here,  though  of  less  depth,  is  scarcely  inferior  to 
that  north  of  the  Penner.     Lastly  comes  the   south-western 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I.      portion  of  the  Jammalamadugu   taluk    where  it  abuts  on  the 
Soils.       Tadpatri  plain.     Here  the  cotton   soils  show  a  fair  general 

average  of  fertility  rather  than  any  marked  superiority.     The 

qualities  of  this  soil  are  well  known.     It  is  very  retentive  of 
moisture  and  when  wet  exceedingly  miry  and  tenacious.     In 
the  hot  weather  it  crumbles   into  a  fine   dust  on  the  top  and 
cracks  into  adamantine    blocks    beneath,   the   fissures   often 
being   of  great  depth.     Theories  as  to  its  origin  differ,  but 
the  curious  way  in  which  in  places  it  laps    round   the  rocks 
when  exposed,  penetrating  even  to  little  nooks  and  crevices 
certainly    goes   to   support   the   view    that   it   is  largely   an 
aqueous  deposit  of  lacustrine  origin.     Next  in  importance  are 
the  alluvial  soils,  which  vary  in  texture  and  colour  as  the  regar 
soil  is  more  or  less  impregnated  with  other  elements  brought 
down  by  the  rivers.     As  to  the  origin  of  other  black  soils  it  is 
unnecessary  here  to  particularise.    Loams  largely  predominate 
throughout  the  tract  especially  in  Cuddapah  and  Pulivendla, 
where  such  land  when    commanded  by  wells  is  often  very 
valuable.     Turning  to  the  red  soils,  in  Jammalamadugu  taluk 
they  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  villages  on  and  about 
the  Gandikota  range  of  hills,  from  the  quartzites   of  which 
they  are  derived.     They  are  mostly  shallow  soils  and  of  a  poor 
quality.     In  Proddatur  and  more  especially  in  the  Cuddapah 
taluk  the  red  soils  are  more  important   as  they  often  stretch 
for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  foot  of  the  hills  into  the 
plains  where  they  are  not  unfrequently  beneficially  affected  by 
the  alluvial   deposits  of  the  Penner.     In  the  eastern  division 
of  the  district  where  red  soils  predominate,  the  best  and  worst 
sorts  are  found.     The  stretches  of  good  soil  are  nowhere  very 
extensive,  but  mention  may  be   made  of  the  light  red  clay 
lands    in  the  neighbourhood  of   Kottakota    in   the   north  of 
Badvel  taluk,  and  there   is  also  a  tract  of  excellent  red  loam 
in  the  villages  of  Vontimitta   and   Mantapampalle  under  the 
Palkonda  hills.     Smaller  patches  of  fair  quality  are  also  to  be 
found  in  parts  of  the  Pullampet  taluk,  notably  in  the  Chitvel 
valley.     In  Rayachoti  taluk,  where   more   than    two-thirds  of 
the  dry  area  is  assessed  at  8  annas  an  acre  and  less,  the  vast, 
uneven  expanses  of  coarse  red  soil  often   present  a  harsh  and 
monotonous  appearance. 
Climate.  An  observatory,  under  the  control  of  the  Madras  Meteoro- 

logical Department,  was  instituted  at  Cuddapah  in  March  1884. 
The  station  is  433  feet  above  sea  level.  The  duty  of  the 
officer  in  charge  of  the  observatory  is  simply  to  observe  and 
report  his  observations,  all  reductions  of  which  are  made  at 
the  Madras  Meteorological  office. 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION 


The  rainfall  of  the  district  is  referred  to  in  some  detail  in    CHAP.  I. 
a  later  chapter.     The  annual    average  for  the  district  as  now     Climate. 

constituted  is  rather  more  than  27  inches.     The  least  favoured  

taluks  are  Jammalamadugu  and  Pulivendla,  where  the  fall  is  Rainfall, 
only  21  inches.  The  district  does  not  lie  definitely  within 
either  of  the  monsoon  areas,  but  depends  on  a  somewhat  pre- 
carious supply  from  either  or  both  quarters,  so  that  the  period 
of  the  main  rainfall  in  any  year  is  largely  conjectural,  and  the 
precipitation  is  occasionally  untimely. 

The   fact   that    Cuddapah    is    generally    regarded    as  an  Xemnera- 
unpleasantly  hot  place  is  probably  due  to  the  early  setting  ture. 
in  of  high  temperatures.      It  is  almost  always  the  first  station 
in  the  Presidency  to  record  a    maximum    shade   temperature 
exceeding  100°  Fahrenheit,  and  this  is    generally  before   the 
end    of    February.     The   average     maximum     temperatures 
of  April   and    May    are  I05'2^    and  I06'3°    respectively.    A 
temperature     exceeding    114°    is   occasionally     recorded    in 
the  period  from  about  May   l6th  to  May  28th.     The   average 
minimum  temperatures  for  these   two  months  are  8o'8^  and 
83*5°.     From  the  second  week  in  June  the  thermometer  drops 
rapidly  as  the  south-west  monsoon   declares   itself,  so  that  the 
maximum  and  minimum  for  this  month    average  respectively 
six  and  three  degrees  lower  than  those  of  May.     But  though 
Cuddapah  is  thus  unpleasantly  hot  for  about  four  months,  the 
climate  is  quite  tolerable  for  the  rest  of  the  year.     The  coolest 
days   and   nights   are   from  the  middle   of   November  to   the 
middle   of  January,  during   the  latter   half  of   which    period 
night   temperatures  not   unfrequently  drop  below  59^.     The 
maximum  temperature  reaches  its  lowest  monthly  average  in 
December,  while  the  lowest   average  minimum  is   recorded  in 
January.     The   figures   are  86*8^    and    64'4°  respectively.     It 
should  be   mentioned   that   Rayachoti  taluk,  most  of  which 
lies  at  an  altitude   of  about  1,000  feet  higher  than    Cuddapah, 
enjoys  a  temperature  some  five  degrees  cooler  than  that  of  the 
low  country. 

The  annual  average  percentage  of  humidity  at  Cuddapah  Humidity, 
is  67*5.  The  average  figures  for  May  and  December,  which 
are  respectively  the  driest  and  most  humid  months  of  the  year, 
are  526  and  77*5.  The  most  rapid  transitions  are  from 
February  to  March  when  the  air  becomes  very  dry  as  the  hot 
weather  sets  in,  and  from  May  to  June  when  moisture  is  again 
brought  up  by  the  south-west  monsoon. 

It  is  during  the  south-west  monsoon  that  winds  attain  their  winds, 
highest  velocity.     They  blow  from  the  south-west  in  July,  but 
in  August  and  September  when  the  rainfall  is  most  frequent, 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I. 

Climate. 


Geology. 


Two  distinci 
rock  areas. 


Of  crystal- 
line rocks. 


Of  stratified 
rocks. 


Concealed 
hy  recent 
deposits. 


Upland 
rugged  with 
scattered 
hill  masses. 


the  general  direction  of  the  wind  is  from  the  north-west.  It 
veers  to  north-east  during  October,  when  the  second  monsoon 
is  established  and  lasts  for  about  two  months.  The  average 
wind  direction  in  December  is  south-east  and  it  remains  in 
this  quarter  till  the  latter  part  of  the  hot  weather,  when  it 
again  blows  from  the  west  or  north-west. 

1  If  Cuddapah  district  were  denuded  of  the  superficial 
deposits  which  so  largely  foriii  the  surfaces  of  its  great  plains 
and  basins,  it  would  be  seen  to  be  divisible  into  two  well- 
marked  areas  of  very  different  kinds  of  rocks.  All  that  part 
of  the  country  lying  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  Guvvala- 
cheruvu  and  Yerraguntlakota  hill  ranges  with  their  extensions 
northwards  to  Parnapalle  and  southwards  to  the  Tirupati  hills 
is  made  up  of  rocks  of  the  gfieissic  series  or  as  it  is  otherwise 
termed  the  metamorphic  or  crystalline  scries.  The  remainder  of 
the  district,  viz.,  that  lying  to  the  eastward  of,  and  including, 
the  hill  ranges  just  mentioned,  consists  of  a  succession  of 
slates,  quartzites  (altered  sandstones,  etc.),  limestones  and 
volcanic  rocks  with  their  accompaniments,  all  of  which  have 
been  classified  into  two  series  called  the  Cuddapah  and  Kurnool 
formations. 

At  various  places  all  over  the  district,  but  mainly  in 
the  taluks  of  Pullampet,  Sidhout,  Cuddapah,  Pulivendla, 
Proddatur,  and  parts  of  Badvel,  the  rock  series  above  given 
are  concealed  by  recent  deposits,  such  as  cotton  soil,  river 
alluviums,  blown  sands,  and  stone  implement  gravels. 

The  upland,  of  which  the  taluk  of  Rayachoti  forms  part,  is 
characteristic  of  a  country  of  the  peculiar  varieties  of  gneiss 
of  which  it  is  composed,  being  a  rugged  region  broken  by 
numerous  great  rounded  hill  masses  with  occasional  steep 
faces,  or  by  smaller  hillocks  and  bosses,  whose  smooth-curved 
slopes  and  humpy  form  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  roches 
moutonnes  of  the  old  ice-worn  regions  of  Europe.  Indeed,  this 
ice-worn  look  of  the  country  often  derives  apparent  confirma- 
tion from  the  further  occurrence  of  rounded  blocks  and  odd- 
shaped  ''tots"  which  are  left  standing  here  and  there  over 
the  country  as  though  they  had  been  dropped  from  icebergs, 
or  rolled  about  and  smoothed  by  ice  action.  There  are  also 
long  wall-like  ridges,  with  white  serrated  crests,  which  are 
peculiarly  conspicuous,  as  well  as  others  not  so  sharply  ser- 
rated, which  by  their  dark  colour  are  easily  distinguishable 
from  the  latter,  and  which  occur  mostly  in  the  eastern  part  of 

•  The  section  of  this  chapter  aealing  with  Geology  is  reproduced  from 
the  Cuddapah  District  Manual  (1875)  with  certain  modifications  approved  by  the 
Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India. 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION 


this  country.  The  indented  line  of  fine  scarps  and  head- 
lands on  the  eastern  and  northern  edge  of  the  Rayachoti  and 
Guvvalacheruvu  country  forms  a  well-marked  hill  barrier 
between  this  upland  and  the  plains. 

Beyond,  or  to  the  northward  of,  this  barrier  stretches  the 
wide  plain  of  Cuddapah  itself  with  its  extension  into  the 
Kunder  valley,  and  the  open  country  of  Pulivendla  and 
Chintakunta,  the  latter  confined  on  either  side  by  the  Jamma- 
lamadugu  and  Pulivendla  hills,  while  that  of  the  Kunder  is 
shut  in  on  the  east  by  the  much  larger  and  more  lofty  range  of 
the  Nallamalais.  At  its  southern  and  eastern  sides  the 
Cuddapah  basin  is  completely  closed  in  by  hills,  but  the  low 
saddle  of  Kanamalopalle  leads  to  a  succession  of  flat  valleys  of 
Vontimitta,  the  Cheyyerand  Pullampet  south-eastwards  in  the 
direction  of  Madras,  which  are  confined  on  their  eastern  and 
western  sides  by  lessening  groups  of  hills  and  ridges.  In 
addition  to  the  great  Cuddapah  plain  and  these  minor  basins, 
there  is  a  further  series  of  long  but  narrow  valleys  lying  to  the 
eastward  of  the  Nallamalais  and  their  extension  southwards 
in  theBadvel  and  eastern  Cheyyer  country,  which  in  its  turn 
is  closed  into  the  east  by  the  long  range  of  the  Veligondas,  a 
portion  of  the  true  eastern  ghats,  and  the  boundary  between 
this  and  the  Nellore  district  or  coast  low-country. 

The  physical  features  of  the  country  having  already  been 
described,  the  rocks  may  be  classified  as  follows  : — 

(i)  Superficial    deposits  (alluvium,    gravels,  soils,   etc.),  recent 
pleistocene. 

(2)  Kurnools  (limestones,  quartzites,  shales)  ^ 

(3)  Cuddapahs  (slates,  quartzites,  etc.)  ^ 

(4)  Crystallines  ^gneiss,  granites,  traps,  etc.)  I 

Crystalline  series. — The  gneiss  is  very  granitoid,  scarcely 
any  foliation  or  stratification  being  visible  even  over  wide 
extents  of  country.  This  rock  might  in  hand  specimens  be 
considered  a  fine-grained  granite,  for  it  has  the  composition  of 
that  rock;  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  its  being  intrusive,  or  of 
its  having  altered  other  rocks  in  its  vicinity.  The  general 
character  is  that  of  a  more  or  less  close-grained  grey  or  pale- 
red  compound  of  quartz  and  felspar,  or  a  quartzo-felspathic 
gneiss.  Locally  it  may  be  met  within  bands  containing  Jiorn- 
blende  and  mica,  thus  giving  the  greyer  and  foliated  varieties  ; 
and  a  very  pretty  pink  rock  may  be  met  with  having  pale-green 
pistacite  distributed  through  it  in  grains,  or  running  in 
irregular  strings. 

Of  the  intrusive  rocks  associated  with  the  gneiss,  the 
granite  occurs  mostly  in  two  forms.     The  larger  veins  are  of 

2 


pre-Cambrian. 


CHAP.  I. 
Geology. 


Low  country 
of  hill- 
divided 
plains. 


Graniioid 
uneiss. 


Granite 
veins. 


10 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I. 

Geology. 


Trap  dykes. 


Brecciated 
quartz  reefs. 


very  coarse  texture,  often  largely  crystallised,  and  generally 
consisting  of  a  white  binary  granite  of  quarts  and  orthoclasc, 
through  often  containing  mica  and  sometimes  pistacite.  This 
coarser  granite  is  easily  weathered  or  decomposed,  as  compared 
with  the  other  rocks;  and  it  is  in  great  part  owing  to  this  that 
the  harder  gneiss  traversed  by  it  is  often  left  standing  out  over 
the  country  in  isolated  masses.  Besides  the  larger  and  more 
marked  veins,  there  are  numerous  other  smaller  ones  often  of 
great  length,  but  generally  only  a  few  inches  in  thickness  and 
running  in  straight  lines,  of  very  close-grained  white  and  pale 
flesh-coloured  granite. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  gneiss  itself  is  the  enormous 
number  and  extent  of  the  trap  dykes.  These  are  of  a  very 
compact,  nearly  black  or  dark-green  green-stote  or  diorite, 
which  is  occasionally  porphyritic  with  large  crystals  of  white 
or  very  pale-green  felspar  distributed  through  the  hornblende 
paste.  Their  direction  is  generally  nearly  E. — W.,  but  some  of 
them  run  N. — S.  or  nearly  so  ;  while  their  inclination  is  very 
nearly  vertical,  or  at  very  high  angles  to  east  or  west.  They 
are  often  traceable  for  many  miles,  one  to  the  eastward  of 
Rayachoti  being  28  or  29  miles  long.  The  east  and  west 
dykes  are  not  traceable  so  continuously,  but  they  in  a  few 
cases  run  for  20  miles. 

This  wonderful  network  of  igneous  outburst  is  most 
intense  in  the  Gurramkonda,  Rayachoti  and  Pller  country  ;  it 
decreases  in  the  number  of  dykes,  though  not  in  their  length 
towards  Vellore  and  Arcot.  The  intrusion  did  not,  however, 
take  place  all  at  once,  but  at  long  intervals.  The  E. — W. 
dykes  appear  to  have  been  first  formed ;  they  were  then 
broken  and  displaced  to  some  extent  by  side-shifting  during 
the  filling  in  of  the  dykes  of  the  N. — S.  system. 

The  remaining  rocks  of  any  physical  importance  in  the 
upland  are  the  brecciated  quartz  rocks.  These  generally  con- 
sist of  an  amorphous  quartz  much  seamed  with  oxide  of  iron, 
as  also  with  strings  of  more  compact  silicious  matter  and  they 
are  mostly  of  dirty  white  colour.  The  rock  looks  as  though 
it  had  been  crushed  and  broken  up  and  then  re-cemented  by 
silicious  infiltration ;  in  other  words,  it  is  an  "infiltration 
breccia  "  filling  up  very  long  fissures  of  dislocation  which  are 
striking  across  the  western  part  of  the  upland  for  long  dis- 
tances in  NW.— SE.  lines,  forming  the  backbones  as  it  were 
of  many  lofty  and  long  hill  ridges.  These  "  runs  "  or  reefs 
of  quartz  breccia  are  both  older  and  newer  than  the  dykes  of 
trap  or  green-stone,  though  they  are  mostly  crossed  by  the 
latter.     Indeed,  in  some  cases,  they  are  possibly   newer  than 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION 


II 


the  Ciiddapah  formation,  for  towards  Kurnool  they  run  in 
fractures  which  have  affected  rocks  of  that  formation,  and 
they  are  possibly  contemporaneous  with  a  series  of  great 
faults  which  was  superinduced  on  the  rocks  of  the  Guvvala- 
cheruvu  range  to  the  south-west  of  Cuddapah. 

Cnddapah  and  Kurnool  formations. — The  rocks  of  the 
Cuddapah  low-country  are  true  sedimentary  rocks  with  one 
exception,  and  show  all  the  ordinary  characters  of  such  in  a 
very  clear  manner ;  but  they  have  been  altered  or  metamor- 
phosed to  some  extent  in  such  a  way  that  the  original  sand- 
stones and  conglomerates  are  now  hardened  and  vitrified  as 
quartzites.  The  shales  and  clays  have  been  turned  into  clay 
slates,  and  in  some  cases  porcellanised,  and  the  limestones 
have  been  rendered  more  or  less  crystalline.  This  is  the 
general  character  of  the  rocks  ;  but  it  is  often  found  that  they 
are  all  weathered  back  again  into  their  originally  more  sedi- 
mentary appearance.  The  ordinarily  compact,  flinty,  homo- 
geneous quartzites  turn  out  after  weathering  to  be  the  coarsest 
sandstones  or  the  roughest  conglomerates  and  shingle  beds. 
The  limestones  become  earthy  and  clayey,  and  the  porcel- 
lanous  beds  are  again  ordinary  soft  pipeclay-looking  shales. 

The  single  exception  to  the  usually  aqueous  character  of 
the  rocks  is  the  occurrence  of  great  flows  of  trap  associated 
with  ash-beds  and  other  volcanic  ejecta. 

Cuddapah  series. — Enclosing  the  Cuddapah  plain  and  its 
continuation  northwards  is  the  hilly  ground  with  the  other 
valleys  and  basins  of  the  low-country  division  of  the  district, 
and  all  this  is  made  up  of  either  quartzites,  slates,  limestones, 
or  trap  rocks.  These  constitute  the  much  older  series  called 
the  Cnddapah  formation,  which  is  divisible  into  many  different 
groups,  only  some  of  which  occur  in  the  area  under  descrip- 
tion. 

Commencing  at  the  southern  end  of  the  district  near  the 
Balapalle  bank  and  cutting  of  the  Madras  Railway  there  are 
very  hard  splintery,  compact,  pale-grey,  and  nearly  white 
quartzite  beds  which  belong  to  the  oldest  group  but  one  in  this 
series  called  the  Chevyer  group.  It  is  a  series  of  great  thick- 
ness consisting  of  two  divisions,  the  lowest  being  conglome- 
rates and  sandstones  which  are  very  well  represented  in  the 
famous  Tirupati  hills  and  on  the  summit  of  Nagari  Nose  in 
North  Arcot.'  On  these  quartzites  lies  the  great  slate  series 
so  well  represented  to  the  south  of  Vontimitta,   and  out  of 

'  The  wonderfully  picturesque  amphitheatre  of  clifls  and  the  narrow  rift  in 
these,  called  the  Pedda  Gandhi  to  the  south  of  Cuddapah,  have  been  cut  out  in 
the  neaily  horizontal  quartzite  beds  of  the  lower  division  of  this  group. 


CHAP.  I. 
Geology. 


5ul)-meta- 
niorphic 
series  of 
Cuddapah 
and  Kurnool. 


Cuddapah 
formation. 


In  south- 
east taluks. 


Chevyer 
group. 


12 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I. 

Geology. 


Cheyyers  in 
the  Puli- 
vendla 
taluk, 
volcanic. 


Papaghni 

group, 

oldest. 


Faulting 

near 

Cuddapah. 


Warm 
springs. 


Nallamalai 
group. 


Metalliferous. 


which  tolerable  slates  may  eventually  be  got  by  deeper  quarry- 
ing. There  are  also  many  bands  of  limestone  (principally 
silicious)  among  these  slates,  the  best  and  easiest  worked 
being  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vontimitta. 

The  Cheyyer  group  is  continued  westward  along  the  south- 
ern edge  of  the  Cuddapah  basin  in  a  very  narrow  band 
bordering  the  Guvvalacheruvu  hills  into  the  Pulivendla  taluk, 
but  the  character  of  the  series  is  totally  changed,  or  at  any 
rate  much  modified  by  the  occurrence  of  great  flows  of  trap 
(diorite)  and  ash-beds  of  great  thickness,  while  the  bands  of 
limestone  are  less  numerous  and  thinner  than  in  the  Cheyyer 
valley.  Fine  displays  of  these  ash-beds,  traps,  limestones,  etc., 
may  be  seen  in  the  Chintakunta  and  Kondapuram  hills  lying 
to  the  westward  of  the  line  of  railwa3^ 

The  thin  band  of  the  Cheyyer  quartzites  to  the  south  of 
Cuddapah  overlies  the  strata  of  the  Guvvalacheruvu  hills, 
which  are  here  all  quartzites,  and  form  the  lowest  group  or 
the  Papaghni  beds.  These  extend  westward  for  some  miles, 
and  thence  northwards  all  the  way  to  Kurnool,'  forming  the 
cliffy  scraps  overlooking  the  Bellary  district,  and  often  run- 
ning up  into  peaks  of  considerable  height. 

The  Guvvalacheruvu  hills  ^  between  the  Cuddapah- 
Guvvalacheruvu  road  and  the  Papaghni  are  rather  curiously 
cut  up  and  broken  by  a  series  of  stepped /<^/</^.s  running  in  a 
nearly  E. — W.  direction,  by  which  a  long  patch  of  the  crystal- 
line rocks  of  the  upland  has  been  left  inside  the  area  of 
quartzites. 

The  warm  springs  of  the  Buggavanka  to  the  south  of  Cudda- 
pah, and  those  of  Putaleshwar  a  few  miles  further  west,  are 
probably  connected  with  this  system  of  faults. 

A  further  and  higher  set  of  quartzites  overlies  the  Cheyyer 
beds  of  the  Pulivendla  valley,  viz.,  those  of  the  Jammala- 
madugu  hills,  through  which  the  grand  gorge  of  the  Penner 
at  Gandikota  has  been  cut.  These  belong  to,  and  are  the 
lowest  beds  of,  the  Nallamalai  group,  but  their  continuity  with 
the  greater  mass  in  the  Nallamalai  mountains  is  hidden  by 
strata  of  the  Kurnool  series  in  the  Kunder  valley.  This,  like 
the  rest,  is  made  up  of  quartzites  and  slates,  but  in  more 
numerous  and  varied  bands  than  in  the  two  groups  already 
enumerated.  It  is  also  the  group  which  is  richest  in  resources, 
for  it  has  given  and  still  shows  signs  of  treasures  of  lead, 
copper  and  iron  ores ;  and  there  are  fair  indications  of 
various  building  materials.  The  lie  of  the  Cuddapah  rocks 
until  they  get  close  to  the  Nallamalais  is  tolerably  easy,  that 

■"  A  portion  of  the  Palkonda  range. 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION 


13 


Cuddapah 
town  on 
rocks  of  the 
Kurnool 
formation. 


Kunder 
series  of 
limestones. 


is,  they  are  clipping  gently   to  the   north-east  as  the  edging     CHAP.  I. 
beds  of  a  great  bay  or  gulf;  but   in   this  range  of  hills  and    geology. 

southward  all  along  the  eastern   side  of  the  Cheyyer  valley  

considerable  crushing,  folding,  and  breaking  of  the  strata 
have  been  superinduced  and  have  in  great  measure  helped  to 
elevate  the  varied  strata  in  the  great  mountain  mass,  with  its 
flanking  valleys  and  ridges  carved  out  by  the  great  denuding 
forces  which  were  afterwards  brought  to  bear  upon  this  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  Indian  Peninsula. 

Ktiniool  series. — The  town  of  Cuddapah  stands  on  a  wide 
plain  underneath  the  soil  of  which,  and  visible  in  most  of  the 
wells,  are  reddish-purple  and  chocolate-coloured  (with  green- 
ish seams)  calcareous  shales  and  slaty  shales  lying  nearly 
horizontal  or  undulating  slightly,  but  having  a  general 
basonal  position ;  these  have  been  called  Nandyal  shales. 
They  show  all  up  the  middle  of  the  Kunder  valley  and  repose 
on,  but  graduate  quickly  down  into,  pale-grey  and  dark  lime- 
stone flags  and  thicker  beds  of  limestone  called  the  Koilkuntla 
limestones.  The  latter  dip  or  rise  up  gently  from  under  the 
purple  shales  to  the  south  of  Cuddapah  and  Chintakomma- 
dinne,  and  to  the  west  of  the  town  in  a  narrow  belt  by 
Kamalapuram,  Proddatur  and  so  into  the  Koilkuntla  taluk  of 
the  Kurnool  district,  whence  they  are  named. 

Underneath  the  Koilkuntla  limestone  are  sandstones  or 
quartzites,  locally  intercalated  in  the  limestones  and  known 
as  the  Paniam  series,  after  the  town  of  that  name.  These 
outcrop  between  the  open  Kunder  valley  and  the  western 
ranges  or  Erramalais,  forming  some  low  flat  hills  such  as  the 
plateaux  of  Uppalapad  and  Undutla.  The  greatest  thickness 
of  the  quartzites  is  only  100  feet,  and  the  series  disappears 
altogether  to  the  north  and  south,  nor  has  any  sign  of  it  been 
observed  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  basin.  An  upper  portion 
formed  of  firm  white  sandstone  has  been  distinguished  as  the 
"  pinnacled  quartzites  "  from  its  mode  of  weathering  ;  the 
lower  beds,  or  "  plateau  quartzites  "  are  coarser,  more  earthy 
and  ferruginous,  of  various  rusty  tints.  Again,  still  further 
underneath  is  a  thin  band  of  white,  pale-yellow  and  bufl" 
non-calcareous  shales,  traces  of  which  show  near  the  line 
of  railway  about  eight  miles  north-west  of  Cuddapah.  These 
are  underlaid  by  a  set  of  beds  in  the  Cuddapah  district,  called 
the  Narji  limestones,  v}\\\c\\  have  become  an  industrial  resource 
of  Cuddapah. 

The   Narji  beds  are  typically  very  compact,  sub-crystal-   ^-'-^rji  Lieds. 
line,  and  extremely  fine-grained — so  fine-grained  that  it  is  from 
this  series  of  beds  that  the  so-called  lithographic  limestone  of 


14 


^UDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I. 
Geology. 


Bangana- 
pallc  group 
uf  (luartzites. 


Alluvium, 
soils,  etc. 


Implement 

tjravels. 


Blov\n  sands 
of  Penner, 


the  Madras  Presidency  has  in  some  cases  been  obtained. 
They  are  generally  of  a  grey  colour  with  a  blue  shade,  some- 
times nearly  black,  and  occasionally  of  pale-buff  and  fawn 
colours.  These  strata  crop  up  on  either  side  of  the  Cuddapah 
basin  and  its  extension  northwards. 

In  the  Kurnool  district,  the  whole  group  of  buff  shales  and 
limestones  is  underlaid  by  a  thin  series  of  qiiartzites,  which 
are  peculiarly  interesting  in  that  they  contain  diamonds. 
There  is  unfortunately  no  good  evidence  that  the  lower  group 
is  represented  in  the  Cuddapah  district,  unless  the  quartzites 
capping  the  Chintakunta  hills  towards  the  Chitravati  are  their 
representatives.  There  is  no  case  of  the  rocks  on  these  hills 
having  ever  been  worked  for  diamonds,  and  it  is  almost 
certain  that  the  natives  would  have  known  of  them  long  ago 
were  they  to  be  found. 

Recent  deposits.— The  special  superficial  deposits  worthy  of 
notice,  leaving  out  the  usual  sandy  soils  of  red  or  brown 
colours  which  are  mainly  derived  from  the  disintegration  of 
the  adjacent  rocks  by  atmospheric  agency,  are  the  gravels  and 
alluvial  deposits  of  the  proper  plains  of  the  district,  the  cotton 
soil,  and  to  a  small  extent  the  blown  sands.  The  alluvial 
deposits  are  mainly  of  two  kinds — a  hard  calcareous  clayey 
drift  with  bands  of  heavy  conglomerate  and  shingle,  and  a 
set  of  softer,  somewhat  sandy  loams.  The  latter  appear  to  be 
strictly  fluviatile  and  lacustrine  in  their  origin,  while  the 
coarser  deposits  are  possibly  estuarine,  and  may  even  be 
partly  marine.  Stone  implements  chipped  out  of  quartzite 
have  been  dug  from  seams  of  gravel  in  the  lower  clays  (though 
not  as  yet  in  the  Cuddapah  basin)  of  the  western  side  of  the 
Kunder  valley  in  a  nullah  five  miles  north  of  Mutyalapad  in 
the  Kurnool  district,  and  at  other  places;  and  hence  those 
older  clays  are  sometimes  called  "  implement  gravels."  Other 
stone  implements  have  been  found  lying  among  the  much 
more  recent  sandy  soils  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  Raya- 
choti.  The  upper  alluvial  deposits  occupy  a  large  part  of  the 
middle  of  the  Kunder  valley  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Cuddapah  plain,  but  they  are  every  now  and  then  covered  up 
by  extensive  patches  of  cotton  soil,  particularly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Nossam  and  Koilkuntla  (Kurnool  district)  and  the  wide 
valley  west  and  north  of  Pulivendla.  The  heavier  clays  and 
gravels  only  show  on  the  east  side  of  the  Kunder  valley.  The 
diamond  mines  of  Chennur  were  worked  in  some  gravel  banks 
of  these  deposits. 

Blown   sands   are  only  exceptionally  accumulated  in  the 
district,   and  mainly  along   the  banks  of  the   Penner.     The 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION 


15 


sands  from   this  river  are  blown    from   the   bed   in    the   dry     CHAP.  I. 
seasons  by  the  high  winds  as  they   rush  through  the  different    Geology. 

gorges,  particularly  the  long  one  of  the  Gandikota.     At  both  

ends  of  the  Gandikota  gorge  there  are  heavy  accumulations 
piled  up  by  the  westerly  and  easterly  winds  which  blow 
during  the  two  monsoons.  The  larger  drift  is  at  the  eastern 
end  towards  Jammalamadugu,  which  village  is  often  largely 
invaded  by  the  sand  during  the  westerly  winds.  From 
Jammalamadugu,  there  is  a  belt  of  low  sand  hills  bordering 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  as  far  down  as  and  beyond  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Papaghni  and  Kunder. 

The  geological  resources   of    this  district   are   diamonds,   Industrial 
iron,  lead  and  copper,  to  which  may  be  added  building  stones,   l"''^<'"cts 
road  materials  and  cements. 

Diamonds  have  been  worked  for  and  found  only  in  one  part  Diamonds, 
of  the  district,  at  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Chennur  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Penner,  about  seven  or  eight  miles  north  of 
Cuddapah.  The  diamonds  were  obtained  from  a  hard  gravelly 
deposit,  or  rough  conglomerate  underneath  the  rather  thick 
covering  of  soils  and  clays  at  Chennur,  which  is  made  up  of 
fragments  of  rocks  and  smaller  debris  from  the  proper  diamond- 
bearing  strata  of  the  adjacent  Kurnool  district,  the  whole 
making  up  a  bank  or  banks  of  rearranged  materials  among 
the  recent  deposits  lying  around  a  spur  of  the  Nallamalais 
which  here  drops  down  into  this  part  of  the  Cuddapah  basin. 
The  extent  of  these  gravels  is  of  course  not  known,  except  in 
so  far  as  their  area  is  indicated  by  the  pits  dug  down  to  them  ; 
but,  from  all  inquiry  made  on  the  subject,  it  would  appear 
that  further  lateral  extension  of  the  search  was  not  considered 
worthy  of  trial,  or  that  the  landholders  opposed  it.  There  is 
no  reason,  however,  against  the  supposition  that  the  conglo- 
merate does  extend  much  further,  and  that  it  may  even  be 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  valley.  The  deposit  lies  about  six 
feet  below  the  surface.  The  mines  are  generally  of  a  squa're 
form,  and  from  4  to  12  feet  deep.  The  pebbles  most  commonly 
met  with  are  ferruginous,  gritty  and  schistose  sandstones, 
sandstone-conglomerates,  including  rolled  pebbles  of  quartz, 
chert  and  jasper,  claystone  porphyry,  with  crystals  of  felspar; 
blue  jasper,  veined  with  oxide  of  iron  ;  coarse,  red  jasper  and 
quartz  crystals.  Some  of  these  pebbles  have  evidently  been 
transported  from  the  adjacent  hills,  but  the  porphyritic  and 
felspathic  pebbles  must  have  travelled  a  much  greater  distance. 
Near  the  base  of  the  hills  the  cotton  soil  is  covered  with  red 
gritty  earth,  arising  from  the  disintegration  of  the  sandstone 
rock.     The  process  of  mining  consists  merely  in   digging  out 


I 6  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  I.     the  rolled  pebbles  and  gravel,  and  washing  them  carefully  in 
Geology,     small  square  reservoirs  raised  on  mounds  having  their  bottoms 

paved  with  stones.     At  the  foot  of  the  mound  is  a  clear  space 

surrounded  by  heaps  of  refuse,  where  the  washed  gravel  is 
again  carefully  spread  out  and  examined  in  presence  of  the 
diamond  contractors  ;  the  diamonds  are  easily  recognized  in 
the  moist  state  by  their  peculiar  lustre.  These  mines  were 
formerly  let  out  by  the  Government  to  native  contractors.  In 
1834  the  mines  proved  profitable,  but  in  the  following  year  the 
miners  lost  a  considerable  sum.  The  sum  paid  to  Government 
by  them  for  the  privilege  of  mining  a  piece  of  ground,  lOO 
yards  long  by  50  broad,  for  four  months  was  Rs.  200.  In  1840, 
the  contract  rose  to  about  Rs.  250.  When  a  diamond  of  more 
than  a  gold  pagoda  in  weight  (52"56  grains  at  Madras)  was 
found,  it  was  sold  by  public  auction,  and  one-third  of  the 
proceeds  went  to  Government,  the  remainder  to  the  mining 
contractor.  Dry  weather  was  selected  to  carry  on  operations 
to  avoid  the  inconvenience  and  expense  of  draining.  Previous 
to  British  rule  all  the  diamonds  produced  were  carried  for 
sale  to  Vijayanagar  and  Golconda.  In  those  days  very  large 
diamonds  were  found.  Dr.  Heyne  and  Captain  Newbold, 
when  describing  their  visits  to  these  mines,  mentioned  that 
the  natives  objected  to  their  approaching  them  on  horseback, 
as  it  would,  they  said,  irritate  Ammavaru  or  Lakshmi,  the 
goddess  of  riches,  who  was  the  patroness  of  the  mines. 
Newbold  stated  that  he  witnessed  sacrifices  made  to  propitiate 
her.  The  different  pebbles  considered  indicative  of  the 
presence  of  diamonds  bear  the  following  names  in  Telugu : — 
Telia  bendu,  decomposed  hornstone ;  Binga  bendu,  transparent 
quartz;  Pacchai  bendu,  epidote  ;  Gaju  bendu,  pebbles  with 
an  ochreous  encrustation  ;  Baggira,  jasper  of  various  colours  ; 
Karla,  basalt ;  Yerra  bendu,  sandstone  ;  Kanna,  small  globular 
ironstone  ;  Korund  or  Corundum,  which  is  considered  to  be 
the  best  sign.  Besides  these  there  are  many  other  pebbles, 
chiefly  varieties  of  sandstones. 

The  mines  were  leased  collectively  for  a  time  by 
Mr.  Richardson,  of  Madras,  who  applied  to  the  Collector  of 
Cuddapah,  for  permission  to  work  them  in  1869,  at  the  favour- 
able rent  of  Rs.  lOO  per  annum.  This  attempt  was  not 
attended  with  success,  but  there  are  accounts  of  two  diamonds 
having  formerh/-  come  out  of  the  field  which  were  eventually 
sold,  respectively,  for  Rs.  50,000  and  Rs.  30,000. 

In  the  Ktirnool  formation  there  is  a  group  of  quartzites 
which  is  actually  mined  at  Banganapalle  for  diamonds  ;  but, 
though  other  members  of  this  series  are  found  in  the  Cuddapah 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION  1 7 

area,  this  particular  group,  to  which  the   name  Banganapalle     CHAP.  I. 
has  been  given,  does  not  occur  in   the  district.     The  nearest     Geology. 

point  of  occurrence  of  this  group  is  some  miles  to  the  west  of         

Tadpatri. 

Iron  ore  is  scattered  pretty  generally  over  the  country,  but  iron  ore. 
only  in  any  quantity  at  two  or  three  localities,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  which  it  used  to  be  smelted  according  to  the 
demand,  the  latter  being  always  very  small.  Usually  the  ore 
is  some  variety  of  the  peroxide  of  iron,  mostly  a  grey  mica- 
ceous ore.  Some  old  iron-smelting  villages  lie  along  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  Kunder  valley  from  Nandyalampet  north- 
wards. The  form  of  ore  here  worked  was  a  massive  shaly 
ferruginous  sandstone  mainly  made  up  of  ha'matite.  Several 
furnaces  were  worked  at  Yerraguntlakota  in  the  Chitvel 
country,  the  ore  being  brought  from  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
hills  west  of  the  village.  In  the  Rayachoti  taluk,  near  Madi- 
cheruvu,  this  manufacture  was  also  carried  on,  though  not 
to  any  great  extent,  the  ore  being  quarried  and  brought 
from  the  hills  to  the  westward.  The  industry  ceased  to  be 
remunerative  about  forty  years  ago,  owing  to  cheaper 
foreign  imports. 

Lead,  in  the  form  of  galena  or  sulphide  of  lead,  is  fountl  in  Lead  ore. 
the  Nallamalais  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  old  mines  at 
Jangamrazupalle.  The  workings  are  now,  and  have  long  been, 
deserted,  and  much  of  the  lead  has  probably  been  worked 
out;  but  there  are  still  good  indications  of  this  mineral.  The 
locality  is  wild,  much  overgrown  with  jungle,  and  feverish. 

Jangamrazupalle  is  on  the  pass  of  that  name  across  the 
Nallamalais,  some  five  miles  north  of  the  road  from  Cuddapah 
to  Badvel.  The  lead-workings  were  at  the  south  end  and  east 
side  of  a  low  ridge  north-north-east  of  the  village.  The 
galleries  were  excavated  between  beds  of  dark-grey  silicious 
limestone  traversed  by  strings  of  white  and  dull-blue  quartz. 
Granular  sulphide  of  lead  is  disseminated  in  very  small  quan- 
tities through  the  blue  quartz,  and  it  was  doubtless  in  strings 
like  these  in  the  excavated  beds  of  the  same  rock  that  the 
extracted  lead  occurred.  These  strings  of  quartz  are  in  north- 
north-east — south-south-west  fissures  having  a  dip  of  60^  west- 
ward, the  beds  of  silicious  rock  dipping  at  50^  east  by  north. 
Further  south  and  west  of  the  village  there  are  again  numerous 
old  galleries  excavated  in  the  same  series  of  beds  ;  and  the 
adjacent  strata  still  show  traces  of  the  ore.  There  are 
also  other  old  workings  to  the  westward  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Nallamalais  opposite  Vanipenta  but  no  traces  of  lead 
were  seen. 
3 


i8 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I. 

Geology. 


Copper. 


Building' 

materials. 

Limestonts. 


The  lead  found  in  this  region  is  very  rich  galena,  contain- 
ing silver;  and,  though  only  poor  specimens  were  found  in  situ 
at  the  time  of  the  visit  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  many 
of  the  quarried  fragments  or  debris  from  the  mines  were  very 
rich  in  ore ;  and  fine  and  massive  specimens  have  been  found 
since  then  by  subordinates  of  the  Public  Works  Department. 
There  seems  on  the  whole  every  probability  of  this  being  a 
good  mining  region  as  far  as  the  traces  of  ore  can  show ;  and 
Mr.  Wall,  the  then  Mining  Engineer  of  the  Madras  Govern- 
ment, at  the  time  of  his  inspection  reported  very  favourably 
on  it.  It  is  now  within  more  easy  reach  of  Madras,  owing  to 
the  proximity  of  the  railway,  than  it  was  in  Mr.  Wall's  time. 
There  is  not  a  good  supply  of  water  for  working  machinery, 
etc.,  but  this  might  b€>met  by  damming  up  some  of  the  streams 
which  are  full  enough  during  the  rains  ;  and  indeed  the  other 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  opening  out  the  mines,  such  as  the 
unhealthiness  of  the  place,  the  poorness  of  junglegrowth  to 
meet  the  requirements  in  the  Wciy  of  fuel,  and  the  scarcity  of 
labour  might  all  be  met  to  some  extent  by  care  and  good 
management. 

Copper  shows  only  in  traces  associated  with  the  lead  ore 
in  this  same  Jangamrazupalle  region.  These  were  only 
cupreous  stains, — impressions  of  crystals  of  copper  pyrites  and 
faint  traces  of  native  copper.  They  occur  in  the  strings  of  quartz 
already  detailed  as  traversing  the  beds  of  silicious  limestone. 

Good  building  stone  is  common  all  over  the  district,  but 
some  of  it  is  of  special  adaptation,  one  variety  having  become 
worthy  of  exportation  into  other  districts.  Among  these  are 
the  various  limestones,  commencing  first  with  the  fine  narji 
stone.  The  best  description  of  this  was,  and  possibly  is,  yet 
procurable  from  the  original  quarries  at  the  village  of  Narji, 
about  24  miles  west-north-west  of  Cuddapah.  It  is  a  regular- 
bedded,  compact,  dark-grey,  semi-splintery  rock  ;  and,  being 
well  jointed  at  right  angles  to  the  bedding,  is  easily  obtainable 
in  blocks  and  thin  slabs-  The  colour  is  so  dark  at  times  as  to 
give  almost  a  black  marble  when  the  stone  is  polished.  As 
the  group  in  which  this  limestone  occurs  underlies  the  great 
Cuddapah  plain  and  crops  up  to  the  surface  on  either  side  of 
it,  it  follows  that  good  varieties  are  quarried,  or  can  be 
obtained  anywhere  along  the  base  of  the  Nallamalais,  as 
also  to  the  westward  of  a  sinuous  line  drawn  from  Chinta- 
kommadinne  (south  of  Cuddapah)  through  Kamalapuram, 
Proddatur,  Peddapasupula  and  Pattur. 

Other  almost  equally  good  limestones  occur  in  the  Nalla- 
malai  side  of  the  valley,  though  these  belong  to  the  upper 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION  IQ 

group  of  the  Kurnool  formation.     It  is  from  this  upper  series     CHAP.  I. 
that  the  coarser  and  more  clayey  limestone  flags,  so  largely      Geology. 

used   in    Cuddapah    and   the  villages   up  the  middle  of  the  

Kunder  valley,  are  obtained. 

Besides  these  easily  procurable  and  extensively  distributed 
limestones,  there  are  frequent  bands  of  other  but  often  harder — 
as  being  very  silicious  and  splintery — calcareous  beds 
especially  around  Vontimitta,  and  so  down  through  the 
Pullampet  taluk.  A  very  thick  series  crops  up  along  the 
course  of  the  Papaghni  just  before  it  enters  the  Cuddapah 
basin,  and  thence  continues  westward  below  the  main  Puli- 
vendla  ridge.  There  are  some  thin  bands  of  limestone  running 
for  miles  in  long  north-west — south-east  outcrops  across  the 
plains  north  of  Pulivendla,  the  highest  and  thickest  bands 
crossing  the  Chitravati  (not  seen  in  river)  a  few  miles  above 
the  railway  bridge. 

Of  all  these  limestones  perhaps  that  from  the  Narji  l>'»"^- 
quarries,  or  from  the  corresponding  beds  on  either  side  of  the 
Kunder  valley,  is  best  adapted  for  lime  burning,  though  in 
many  cases  good  lime  may  be  produced  from  nearly  all  the 
varieties  if  care  in  selection  and  a  judicious  mode  of  burning 
be  adopted.  The  country  is,  however,  so  generally  productive 
of  the  peculiar  nodular  and  concretionary  fresh-water  and  sub- 
serial  deposit  called  kankar,  both  in  the  upland  taluks  and  in  the 
low-country  that,  except  for  large  works,  the  proper  limestone 
is  seldom  brought  into  extensive  use  as  a  source  of  lime. 

The  next  most  frequently-occurring  stone  in  the  district.  Slates, 
which  at  first  sight  might  seem  of  great  value,  is  the  clay-slate. 
These  slates  are  never  seen  to  come  near  the  true  slates  of 
commerce  either  in  hardness,  fineness  of  texture,  or  intensity 
of  cleavage.  It  may  be  said  of  these  rocks  that  they  are 
simply  clay-slates,  describing  them  as  to  their  composition  as 
evident  to  the  eye  and  touch,  the  true  roofing  material  being 
distinctly  a  slate.  However,  there  are  regions  in  the  district 
where  some  of  these  clay-slates  are  much  more  suitable  for 
roof-covering  or  for  flags  than  the  generality  of  the  rock  ;  and 
it  is  not  improbable  as  the  country  is  opened  up  and  quarries 
cut  into  the  rock,  that  even  better  materials  may  be  found. 

The  best  slates,  or  such  as  seem  capable  of  being  split  into 
slabs  of  any  moderate  size  and  tenuity,  are  near  the  upper 
Ahobilam  temple  in  the  Nallamalais.  Again,  large  slabby 
slates  are  quarried  to  some  little  extent  on  the  eastern  flanks 
of  these  mountains  at  about  the  parallel  of  Badvel- 

The  remaining  rocks  in  the  low-country  are  the  numerous   Saa.istonos, 
quartzites,  or  altered  sandstones.     These  are  all  hard,  difficult 


20 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  I. 

Geology. 


Gneiss,  etc. 


Flora. 


to  be  worked,  and  only  suitable  for  local  construction. 
Occasionally  they  are  thin-bedded  and  jointed  sufficiently  to 
give  small-sized  slabs  easily  split  up.  The  numerous  railway 
works  along  the  line  of  railway  south  of  Vontimitta  are  mostly 
built  of  blocks  from  these  thin  beds  of  the  quartzites  ;  and  the 
cutting  at  Balapalle  may  be  pointed  out  as  a  piece  of  work 
excavated  in  about  the  most  intractable  rock  in  the  country. 

In  the  upland  region  the  prevalent  rock  is  a  variety  of  the 
gneissic   series,   or   what  is  usually   wrongly    designated   as 
granite  ;  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  refer  here  to  the  build- 
ing material  obtainable  therefrom  as  it  is  so  well  known,  and 
so  frequently  used  in  large  structures  all  over  Southern  India. 
From  what  has  already  been  said  of  the  situation  of  the 
district  and  its  scanty  rainfall   the   nature  of  its  flora  may  be 
readily   inferred.     The  whole  district  falls  within  what  has 
been  called  the  dry  zone  of  the  Presidency,  depending  for  its 
moisture   on  the   fringes  of  both  monsoons.     A   few   weeks 
after    hot    weather   conditions   are    established,    everything 
begins  to  wear  a  withered  appearance.     Herbaceous  vegeta- 
tion is  burned  up,  many  trees  are  leafless,  and  the  aspect  of 
the  country  is  dreary  in  the  extreme.     The  main  characteristic 
of  the  stretches  that  intervene  between  cultivated  areas  is  a 
rather  sparse  scrub  jungle,  variegated  by  more  or  less  isolated 
rocky  hills  of  no  great  elevation  which   are  as  often   as  not 
devoid    of    any    growth    except    thin    grass    and    scattered 
Euphorbia  or  Cactus  bushes.     I  omit  here  all  reference  to  the 
reserved  forests  which  cover  the  slopes  of  the  main  hill  ranges 
of  the  district,  as  they  are  treated  in  some  detail  in  another 
chapter.     Among  the  characteristic  shrubs  of  the  district  may 
be  mentioned  Carissa  carandas,  Calotropis  gigantea,  Opuntia 
dillenii.  Cassia  auriculata,  Euphorbia  antiquorum.  Euphorbia 
neriifolia.  Euphorbia  tirucalli  and  Ixora  parviflora.     Of  these 
the  Cassia  auriculata — the    yellow-flowered  tangedit — though 
found    throughout    the    district    is    perhaps    commonest    in 
Rayachoti  taluk  and  often  thrives  over  rocky  and  gravelly 
wastes   where  seemingly  nothing  else  can  grow.     Tamarind 
topes  abound  throughout  the  district  and  there  are  but  few 
camping  grounds  where  other  trees  such  as  mangoes  afford 
an    adequate    shade.      Of    scattered    trees    other    than    the 
tamarind,  the  babul  and  margosa  are  perhaps  the  commonest, 
though  in  Rayachoti  taluk  no  tree  seems  to  occur  so  frequently 
as  the  kanuga  (Pongamia   glabra)  which  thrives  better  on  the 
plateau,  while  its  growth  is  encouraged  for  the  manurial  value 
of  its  leaves.     Of  fig  trees,  the  ragi  (Ficus  religiosa)  and  juvvi 
(Ficus  tsiela)  are   most  frequently  met    with,    especially  the 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION  H 

former.     It  is  said  that  at  the   top  of  the   Palkonda  hills  a      CHAP.  I. 
hamlet  of  Tallapalle-Yelamavaripalle  of  Pulivendla  taluk  con-       Flora. 

tains  an  immense  banyan  tree  capable  of  sheltering  about         

three  thousand  people.  The  place  is  very  difficult  of  access 
and  I  have  never  had  an  opportunity  of  visiting  it  to  verify 
the  truth  of  this  statement. 

Live-stock  has  increased  with  the  spread  of  cultivation  ;  Fauna. 
but  the  indigenous  cattle  of  the  district,  which  are  of  the  small  Cattle, 
black  and  white  and  red  breed  common  in  the  Ceded  Districts 
and  southern  portions  of  the  Presidency,  are  generally  of 
poor  quality,  being  undersized,  ill-fed  and  ill-cared  for.  The 
universal  system  of  common  pasturing,  in  which  cattle  of  all 
ages  wander  in  promiscuous  herds  over  the  open  arable  lands 
and  village  wastes,  ensures  immature,  mongrel  breeding  and 
the  spread  of  disease ;  and  since,  in  general,  there  is  no 
system  of  fodder  growing,  only  the  scanty  wild  pasture  of  the 
unoccupied  lands,  and  the  grazing  and  stubble  on  the  arable 
lands  and  leaves  from  trees  are  available  for  ordinary  cattle. 
Of  the  better  cattle  there  are  two  kinds,  both  imported  or  from 
imported  strains.  Around  Cuddapah  and  on  the  black  cotton 
plains  the  cattle  are  almost  all  of  the  Nellore  breed,  tall,  bulky, 
clumsy  and  flat  sided  animals,  which  however  possess  great 
strength,  and  when  cared  for  are  very  useful  beasts.  They 
are  imported  from  the  breeding  districts  of  Nellore,  being 
brought  over  annually  by  drovers  who  seldom  obtain  full 
payment  at  the  time  of  sale,  the  purchase  money  being  spread 
over  several  years.  The  best  animals  weigh  up  to  1,500  lb. 
and  are  excellent  milkers.  Brought  over  when  just  ready  for 
use,  their  life  under  the  plough  is  said  to  last  for  about  eight 
years.  The  other  imported  strain  is  the  Mysore  breed,  which 
is  nowhere  found  pure  in  the  district  and  is  practically 
confined  to  the  upland  taluk,  where  good  results  have  been 
obtained  by  intermixing  this  breed  with  the  common 
indigenous  kind.  Cattle  disease  which  is  prevalent  in  various 
forms  often  causes  immense  loss  to  the  ryots,  who  are  neverthe- 
less slow  to  abandon  time-honoured  and  ineffectual  remedies 
in  favour  of  more  enlightened  methods  of  combating  the  evil. 

Buffaloes  are  of  the  usual  variety.  They  are  occasionally  Rufialocs, 
used  for  heavy  ploughing,  and  frequently  in  Rayachoti  taluk  ^'^'^'^P  -^""^ 
for  slow  heavy  draught  such  as  carting  slabs  from  granite 
quarries  on  the  most  primitive  vehicles  imaginable,  formed  of 
two  or  three  heavy  planks  on  solid  wooden  wheels.  But 
probably  most  of  the  buffaloes  are  sacrificed  at  shrines,  one 
of  which,  at  the  small  village  of  Anantapuram  in  Rayachoti 
taluk,  is  responsible  for  the  slaughter  of  hundreds  every  year. 


22  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  I.  Of  sheep  the  three  principal  breeds  found  in  the  Presidency 
Fauna.       are  all  represented  in  the  district.     The  small  woolly  kind  is 

found  in   the  upland  taluk,  all  the  wool  which  is  of  a  hairy 

(luality  being  consumed  locally  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse 
blankets.  The  other  small  variety  which  is  red  in  colour  and 
covered  only  with  short  coarse  hair  is  found  all  over  the 
district  as  is  also  the  third  species,  a  long-legged  goat-like 
animal,  characterized  by  two  tassels  dependent  from  its  neck, 
of  larger  size  than  the  two  first  named,  but  producing  coarse 
mutton  and  no  wool.  The  goats  are  of  the  ordinary  breed. 
Together  with  sheep  they  are  largely  used  as  manuring 
agents,  wandering  over  the  village  by  day  and  penned  at 
night  on  the  fields  of  those  who  have  hired  their  services. 
In  folding  the  sheep  on  the  land  hurdles  are  very  seldom  used 
in  this  district,  the  flock  being  simply  herded  on  a  particular 
field  and  guarded  by  the  shepherd  assisted  by  two  or  three 
savage  dogs  according  to  his  need.  No  fixed  lambing  season 
is  known,  owing  to  the  universal  practice  of  letting  the  rams 
and  ewes  run  together;  but  the  shepherds  acknowledge  that 
the  best  season  for  the  lambs  being  dropped  is  February. 

a  me.  The   most   important   species    of  game  are  to  be  found  in 

the  reserved  forests  along  the  slopes  of  the  main  hill  ranges. 
Tigers  are  not  very  common  but  are  well  known  to  haunt  the 
south  end  of  the  Seshachalam  range  where  the  Pullampet 
taluk  adjoins  the  well-known  Chamala  valley  in  Chittoor 
district.  This  valley  is  so  well  stocked  with  game  and  so 
carefully  preserved  that  the  forests  in  its  neighbourhood  have 
become  the  tiger's  permanent  habitat.  Leopards  are  very 
common,  especially  in  the  rocky  hills  of  Rayachoti  taluk,  and 
do  (jonsiderable  damage  by  killing  cattle.  The  hunting- 
cheetah,  Cynaslurusjubatus,  isno  doubt  occasionally  seen.  One 
was  recently  heard  of  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Nallamalais  in 
Proddatur  taluk,  but  as  the  people  do  not  clearly  distinguish 
this  species  it  is  difficult  to  record  its  appearances  with 
exactitude.  Other  smaller  species  of  the  wild  cat  tribe  are 
said  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  district.  Bears  are  to  be 
found,  as  also  wolves.  The  latter  are  less  common,  but  have 
been  seen  in  recent  years  near  Agudur  in  Pulivendla  taluk 
and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Veligallu  in  the  extreme  west  of 
Rayachoti  taluk.  The  Indian  wild  dog,  Cyon  dukhunensis, 
occurs  wherever  deer  and  sambhar  are  found.  The  latter  haunt 
the.  larger  forests,  while  spotted  deer  are  common  at  the  foot  of 
all  the  big  hill  ranges.  The  same  may  be  said  of  jungle  sheep 
(Cervulus  muntjac)  and  wild  pig.  Outside  the  forests  chinkara 
(the  Indian  Gazelle)  and  the   Indian  Antelope  or  blackbuck, 


PHYSICAL  DESCRIPTION  23 

especially  the  latter,  are  often  seen.     Some  three  years  ago     CHAP.  I. 
black  buck  was  very  plentiful  in  the  north  of  the  Pullampet       F"auna. 

taluk,   west  of  the  road  from   Pottapi    to    Madhavaram.     In  

addition  to  these,  no  doubt  the  mousedeer,  Tragulus  mcmimna, 
also  occurs,  as  it  is  known  to  frequent  all  hilly  jungle  tracts 
south  of  the  Godavari,  though  I  have  no  record  of  its  having 
been  actually  seen  in  Cuddapah  district. 

Of  game  birds,  partridges  and  quails  arc  the  commonest, 
and  sandgrouse  also  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  district.  In  and 
near  the  forests  peafowl  are  fairly  plentiful,  and  one  of  the 
localities  specially  favoured  by  them  appears  to  be  a  stretch 
of  jungle  and  forest  a  few  miles  east  of  Sidhout,  where  they  are 
often  to  be  seen  from  the  road  leading  to  Badvcl.  Junglefowl 
andspurfowl  are  also  common  in  all  the  forests  of  the  district. 
The  Indian  Bustard  (Eupodotis  Edwardsi)  though  generally 
scarce,  is  said  to  be  fairly  common  over  a  small  area  in  the 
north-west  of  Jammalamadugu  taluk  beyond  Talamanchi- 
patnam  towards  the  Kurnool  frontier.  The  Lesser  Florican 
(Sypheotis  aurita)  is  also  occasionally  seen  and  I  learn  that  two 
specimens  have  been  shot  in  recent  years  within  a  few  miles  of 
Cuddapah  town.  Besides  the  usual  species  of  plovers  which 
occur  in  all  parts  of  South  India,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
a  portion  of  Cuddapah  district,  corresponding  roughly  to  the 
Badvel  taluk,  is  included  in  the  very  limited  area  to  which  is 
confined  the  rarer  species  of  double-banded  plover  (Rhinop- 
tilus  ditorquatus\  which  is  said  to  be  scarcely  ever  found 
outside  scrub-jungle  and  is  not  known  to  exist  except  in  parts 
of  Nellore,  Cuddapah  and  Kurnool  districts.  Of  water-loving 
birds,  snipe  are  less  common  than  on  the  east  of  the  Veligonda 
hills,  but  in  some  years  they  are  very  plentiful,  especially  in 
parts  of  Cuddapah  taluk-  Several  kinds  of  teal  and  duck  are 
found  throughout  the  district  and  are  seen  in  good  years  on 
nearly  all  the  larger  tanks  after  the  cessation  of  the  north- 
east monsoon.  Barheaded  geese,  which  visit  the  country  in 
the  cold  season,  are  also  occasionally  met  with. 

Finally,  the  quadrumana  of  the  district  may  be  briefly  <,'iiaaiu- 
noticed,  as  they  comprise,  besides  the  common  Bonnet 
Monkey  (Macacus  sinicus)  of  South  India,  two  rare.r  species, 
namely, the'Madras  Langiir  (Semnopithecus  priamus),  which  is 
the  large  grey  monkey  found  in  the  Seshachalams,  and  the 
curious  little  slender  Loris  (Loris  gracilis)  which,  owing  to  its 
nocturnal  disposition,  is  seldom  seen  unless  searched  for. 


marjii. 


24  CUDDAPAH 

CHAPTER  II. 
POLITICAL  HISTORY. 


TORY. 


Introductory— Pre-historic  remains — The  Deccan  politically  isolated 
in  earliest  historical  times —Earliest  known  dynasties — The 
Banas — The  Rashtrakutas — The  Vaidumbas — Rise  of  the  Cholas 
— The  eastern  division  of  the  district — The  Telugu  Chodas — 
The  Kakatiyas  of  Oarangal — ^First  Muhammadan  invasion — The 
Vijayanagar  Empire — Rise  of  the  Poligars — The  Matla  Princes 
— The  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah — Haidar  Ali  of  Mysore — Transfer 
of  Cuddapah  to  the  British — The  work  of  Munro — The  Poligars 
and  their  reduction — Conclusion. 

CHAP.  II.  ix  has  been  truly  said  that  in  any  account  which  may  be 
Introduc-  given  of  the  literature  proper  to  South  India,  one  capital  defect 
must  be  obvious,  that  history  finds  in  it  no  place.  The 
Muhammadan  historians  have  confined  themselves  to  their  own 
period,  and  the  records  of  Golconda  and  Bijapurdo  not  touch 
that  part  of  the  Deccan  which  includes  the  present  district  of 
Cuddapah.  It  is  only  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  that  means 
have  been  found  through  antiquarian  research  of  supplement- 
ing the  deficiency  caused  by  the  absence  of  materials 
constructed  or  collected  by  usual  historic  methods.  That 
epigraphy  has  thrown  and  continues  to  throw  a  flood  of  light 
on  what  has  hitherto  been  obscure  or  conjectural  is  proved  by 
results.  The  neglect  of  history  as  a  branch  of  the  literature 
of  the  country  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  care  which  has 
been  taken  from  very  early  times  to  as  recent  a  period  as  the 
l8th  century  of  our  era  to  record  matters  of  local  interest  on 
stone  and  copperplates.  It  is  fortunate  that  the  exigencies  of 
the  climate  and  the  voracity  of  white  ants,  which  perhaps 
alone  precluded  the  use  of  a  more  perishable  substance  for  the 
purpose  of  making  what  were  intended  to  be  permanent 
records,  have  preserved  to  us  the  means  of  reconstructing  the 
history  of  the  past.  Old  copperplate  records  are  commoner 
than  might  be  supposed,  and  are  very  carefully  preserved, 
being  handed  down  as  heir-looms  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. Their  possessors  value  them  highly  and,  though  often 
ignorant  of  their  contents,  are  glad  to  show  them  to  enquirers. 
Lithic  inscriptions  are  mostly  found  in  temples  but  were  also 
not  infrequently  set  up  near  the  entrance  to  a  village  or  at  the 


^'- ■■■■■ '^'^'^^4  I 
.      V',      ^k 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  25 

spot  referred  to  in    the    inscription.     They    most   commonly  CHAP.  II- 

record  grants  to  temples,  remission  of  taxes,  gifts  of  land   in         

consideration  of  the  performance  of  services  to  the  community, 
settlement  of  land  disputes  and  the  like.  Their  historical 
value  is  to  be  found  not  so  much  in  the  details  they  relate  as 
in  the  fact  that  they  nearly  always  give  the  date  of  the  event 
recorded,  with  the  name  of  the  reigning  king,  and  his  dynasty. 
If  the  event  recorded  is  a  public  work  redounding  to  the  merit 
of  the  king,  such  as  the  construction  of  a  tank  or  irrigation 
channel,  the  titles  of  the  king,  indicating  the  principal 
military  achievements  of  his  reign,  are  often  recited,  and  his 
genealogy  is  sometimes  given.  Such  inscriptions  are  fortu- 
nately very  numerous,  and  several  may  be  found  relating  to 
the  same  period,  so  that  a  little  understood  allusion  in  one 
may  often  be  elucidated  and  explained  by  another.  They 
constitute  practically  the  only  material  for  an  authentic  history 
of  Cuddapah  district  up  to  the  fall  of  the  Vijayanagar  Empire. 

That  parts  of  the  district,  notably  the  river  valleys  in  the  Prehistoric 
low  country,  were  inhabited  ages  before  the  earliest  of  these  '''^'^^^^°^* 
records  which  have  come  down  to  us,  is  proved  by  the 
existence  of  kistvaens  or  cell-tombs.  They  are  locally  known 
to  the  present  day  as  Pandavagidlu.  There  are  two  types 
found  in  the  district,  one  being  constructed  of  irregular 
unfashioned  stones,  examples  of  which  are  to  be  seen  near 
Yerraguntla,  and  the  other  bearing  signs  of  more  or  less  rough 
workmanship.  They  are  always  found  in  groups  and  not 
scattered  about  singly.  Good  examples  of  the  latter  type 
have  been  found  at  Amilepalle.^  They  have  not  yet  been 
surveyed  by  the  Archaeological  Department,  but  it  is  conjec- 
tured that  they  contain  cinerary  urns  filled  with  fine  red  earth 
and  bone  ash,  with  perhaps  the  remains  of  a  few  corroded  iron 
implements.  The  curiously  shaped  stones  planted  alongside 
some  of  the  tombs  are  peculiar  and  hitherto  unexplained,  but 
they  appear  in  some  way  to  serve  the  purpose  of  memorial 
stones.  The  constructions  of  vmhewn  stone  near  Yerraguntla 
are  of  course  to  be  referred  to  a  still  earlier  civilization,  but  as 
they  too  have  never  yet  been  scientifically  examined  it  can 
only  be  recorded  that  they  are  the  oldest  surviving  monuments 
of  human  activity  in  the  district. 

The  earliest  historical  notices  of  the  south  of  India  lack  all  The  Deccan 
reference  to  this  part   of   the   Deccan,    and   the    key   to  the  P'^|'7'^^'!>' 

•^  isolated  in 

obscurity    of   its    history    is    probably    to    be    found    in    its  earliest 
geographical  position-     The  Eastern  Ghats  cut  it  off  from  the  ^.'s'or'cal 
sea-coast  country  while  on  the  south  and  part  of  the  west  the 

^  In  Vayalpad  taluk,  now  incliulcd  in  Chittoor  district. 
4 


26 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  II. 


Earliest 

known 

dynasties. 


intervention  of  the  Mysore  plateau  constituted  a  natural  barrier 
to  intercourse  with  regions  for  which  easier  access  to  the  sea 
secured  an  earlier  development.  While  we  know  from  the 
Greek  geographer  Megasthenes  (302  B.C.)  and  the  inscriptions 
of  Asoka  (250  B.C.)  of  three  Dravidian  kingdoms  in  the  south- 
east, the  extreme  south,  and  the  south-west  of  the  Peninsula, 
there  is  no  evidence  of  any  kingdom  having  been  in  existence 
in  the  Deccan  at  this  early  period.  Further,  to  judge  from  the 
configuration  of  the  country  and  the  present  aspect  of  its 
wilder  parts,  it  appears  certain  that  at  that  time  and  long 
afterwards  what  is  now  Cuddapah  district  was  a  mere  tract  of 
impenetrable  forest,  barren  rocks  and  stony  wastes.  With  its 
later  development  it  offered  means  of  expansion  to  the 
kingdoms  surrounding  it,  and  its  history  for  many  centuries 
affords  but  an  index  to  the  varying  fortunes  of  neighbouring 
dynasties. 

The  three  Dravidian  kingdoms  above  referred  to  are  the 
Chola,  Pandya  and  Kerala  or  Chera.  With  the  Pandyas  and 
Keralas,  about  the  latter  of  which  little  appears  to  be  known, 
we  are  not  concerned.  The  Cholas  who  appear  from  earliest 
times  to  have  been  firmly  established  in  Tanjore  and  South 
Arcot  found  in  the  early  centuries  of  our  era  a  check  to  their 
expansion  to  the  north  in  the  growing  power  of  the  Pallavas 
who  had  become  firmly  settled  at  Conjeeveram  by  the  middle 
of  the  4th  century  A.D.  From  here  the  Pallava  kings 
controlled  an  extensive  territory  to  the  north,  which  included 
the  present  Nellore  district  and  probably  all  the  Telugu 
country  on  the  east  coast  as  far  as  the  Kistna.  From  Nellore 
they  penetrated  for  a  time  into  the  north  of  Cuddapah  district, 
presumably  following  the  course  of  the  Penner  up  stream,  for 
it  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  river  in  the  taluks  of 
Jammalamadugu  and  Proddatur,  that  the  earliest  historical 
evidence,  in  the  shape  of  lithic  monuments,  has  been  collected. 
From  this  and  similar  evidence  elsewhere  it  appears  toler- 
ably certain  that  the  growing  power  of  the  Pallavas  was 
checked  almost  simultaneously  in  the  north  and  the  south  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  5th  century,  when  the  Chola  dynasty 
under  its  famous,  and  hitherto  mythical,  king  Karikala 
attained  unprecedented  ascendency  and  captured  Conjeeveram 
from  Trilochana-Pallava,  while  on  the  north  the  same  Pallava 
king  suffered  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Chalukyan  adven- 
turer Vijayaditya,  who  claimed  to  come  from  Ayodhya  (Oudh). 
This  battle  probably  took  place  in  Cuddapah  district,  as  the 
village  of  Mudivemu  where  the  queen  of  the  victor  Vijaya- 
ditya who  lost  his   life  took    refuge   after   the   battle,   is    no 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  TJ 

Other  than  Peddamudiyam  in  Jammalamadugu  taluk.     Yet  this     CHAP.  II. 

district  never  came  under  the  sway  of  the  Chalukyans,  whose  

power  developed  much  later,  for  the  dominions  of  their  two 
branches,  the  Eastern  and  Western  Chalukyans,  scarcely 
touched  the  middle  country.  On  the  other  hand,  with  the 
capture  of  the  Pallava  capital,  it  seems  that  the  Cholas  over- 
ran the  Pallava  territory  as  far  north  as  Nellore,  for  a  branch 
of  them  undoubtedly  penetrated  inland  and  established  them- 
selves for  a  century  or  two  in  the  black  cotton  country  on  the 
banks  of  the  Penner  in  this  district.  The  recent  discovery 
of  some  copper  plates  at  Malepad  and  stone  inscriptions  at 
Peddamudiyam  and  Muddanur  conclusively  prove  that  at  least 
four  generations  of  the  earlier  Chola  kings  ruled  this  country. 
That  this  dynasty  succeeded  the  Pallavas,  politically,  in  at 
least  a  portion  of  their  extensive  territory  is  also  rendered 
probable  by  the  fact  that  they  adopted  titles  and  names 
current  among  the  Pallava  kings  of  the  Simhavishnu  line. 
The  full  extent  of  this  Chola  kingdom  has  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered, but  the  fact  of  its  existence  throws  an  interesting 
light  on  the  account  of  a  "  Choolya  "  State  described  by  the 
Chinese  traveller  Hiuen  Tsiang  who  visited  India  about  640 
A.D.  and  compiled  a  geographical  treatise  of  the  south  of 
the  Peninsula.  From  the  boundaries  given  by  him  of  the 
various  divisions  of  the  country  and  the  order  in  which  he 
mentions  the  Choolya  State  it  used  to  be  thought  that  it  might 
correspond  to  part  of  the  Kurnool  district,  though  others  con- 
sidered that  the  names  of  Choolya  and  Dravida  had  been 
transposed  and  that  the  Choolya  State  really  referred  to  the 
Chola  kingdom  of  Tanjore.  The  doubt  has  now  been  cleared 
up.  The  Choolya  State  referred  to  by  Hiuen  Tsiang  was  the 
Telugu  Chola  kingdom  occupying  most  of  the  black  cotton 
country  of  this  district  and  perhaps  parts  of  Kurnool  and 
Anantapur.  The  same  authority  says  it  is  a  small  State, 
about  400  miles  in  circumference.  In  inscriptions  we  find  the 
name  of  this  Chola  country  to  be  Renandu  (the  7000)  and  a 
division  of  it  is  called  Renadu  (the  70).  The  rule  of  the 
Telugu  Cholas  appears  to  have  lasted  till  the  latter  part  of  the 
8th  century,  when  they  were  probably  dispersed  by  the  Rash- 
trakutasof  Warangal  in  the  north  Deccan,  whose  kingGovinda 
III  (A.D.  783-84  to  814-15)  is  recorded  to  have  taken  Conjee- 
veram  from  the  Pallavas.  At  this  early  date,  however,  the 
Rashtrakutas  do  not  appear  to  have  obtained  any  permanent 
foothold  in  the  district  of  Cuddapah,  and  the  next  dynasty 
which  established  its  authority,  for  a  time  at  least,  in  these 
parts  appears  to  be  that  of  the  Banas.     This   presumption    is 


28 


CUDDAPAH 


The  Banas. 


Chap.  II.     supported  by  the  discovery  of  an  inscription   at  Pottipad  in 

Jammalamadugu    taluk,   the    date  of   which    corresponds   to 

A.D.  884.  It  records  a  grant  made  by  a  Bana  king  or  chief 
named  Dhavaleyarasa,  which  shows  that  by  the  end  of  the 
9th  century  an  outpost  of  the  Banas  had  at  any  rate  pene- 
trated to  the  heart  of  the  kingdom  formerly  held  by  the 
Telugu  Cholas.  As  a  last  word  in  regard  to  these  Cholas  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  they  seem  to  have  retreated  north- 
wards, as  a  record  of  the  llth  century  from  the  Bastar  State 
in  the  Central  Provinces  states  that  a  chief  named  Chandra- 
ditya,  a  feudatory  of  the  king  of  those  parts,  "  was  a  descendant 
of  Karikala  Chola  of  the  solar  race,"  etc.,  giving  practically 
the  same  family  titles  to  this  chief  as  were  borne  by  the  Chola 
kings  of  Cuddapah. 

The   Bana  kingdom,    records   of   which    in    Canarese    are 
chiefly  to  be   found   in   the   eastern   fringe  of  Mysore  and  in 
Punganur,  was  established  early  in  the  8th  century  in   a  tract 
of  country  of  which  the  north  and   south   boundaries  roughly 
corresponded  to  those  of  the  present  district  of  Chittoor,  while 
it  extended  from  Kolar  on  the  west  to  Kalahasti  on  the  east. 
Later    in    the    century   this     kingdom     evidently    increased 
rapidly  in  power  and  absorbed  large  territories  to  the  north. 
Bana   inscriptions  of _this    period  boast   of   possessing    "the 
country  west  of  the  Andhra  dominions,"  or  all   the    country 
west  of  the  "  road  to  the  Telugu  country,"  by  which  must  be 
meant  the  east  coast  road  from  Conjeeveram  to  Nellore.     That 
all  this  country  was  effectively  ruled  by  the  Bana  is  not  proba- 
ble,  but    as    already   stated   his   authority   was   undoubtedly 
acknowledged  in  the  north  of   Cuddapah    district  in   the   last 
quarter  of  the  9th  century.     In  this  connection  it  is  interesting 
to  note  that  with  the  coming  of  the  Bana  we  get  apparently 
the   first   historical    evidence   of  the   opening   of   a  route   to 
Cuddapah  from  the  due  south  or  south-west.     It  seems  natural 
to  suppose  that  the  Banas  entered  the  north  portion  of  the 
present     Cuddapah    district    through    the    Vempalle   gorge, 
following  the  course  of  the  Papaghni    from   its  sources  which 
lay  within  the  Bana  territory.     But  at  the  very  time  of  this 
sudden  accession  of  power  to  the  Banas,   another  dynasty  of 
Cholas  was  being  founded  in  the  south  by  Vijayalaya,  before 
which  the  Bana  kings  failed  even  to  conserve  their  old  terri- 
tories, for  they  became  feudatories  of  Vijayalaya's  grandson 
the  Chola  king  Parantaka    I  (A.D.   907   to  940),   with    whose 
family  they  effected  an  alliance  by  marriage. 

With  the  retreat  of  the  Banas  the  fertile   plains  of  north- 
west Cuddapah  came  beneath  the  sway  of  a  dynasty  of  kings 


The  Rashlra- 
kiitas. 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  29 

from  the  north  and  west.     These  were  the    Rashtrakutas  who,   CHAP.  II. 

though  they  attained  pre-eminence  in  their  own  country  prior         

to  the  9th  century,  only  adopted  a  policy  of  expansion  and 
conquest  in  the  reign  of  Indra  III  (fl.c.  A.D.  915).  Canarese 
verses  in  praise  of  this  king's  general  are  found  recorded  at 
the  village  of  Danavulapad  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Penner 
five  miles  south  of  Jammalamadugu.  We  know  more  about  a 
later  king  of  this  line,  Krishna  III,  who  reigned  from  A.D.  940 
to  956.  In  his  reign  the  power  of  the  Rashtrakutas  reached 
its  zenith.  He  must  have  held  the  whole  of  Cuddapah  district 
except  the  eastern  portion  beyond  the  Seshachalams,  for  he 
penetrated  as  far  south  as  Melpadi  in  Chittoor  district.  He  is 
said  in  an  inscription  near  Polur  in  the  North  Arcot  district 
to  have  "  taken  Kachchi  and  Tanjai."  That  he  took  Conjee- 
veram  is  possible,  as  a  large  number  of  his  inscriptions  are 
found  in  the  districts  of  Chingleput  and  South  Arcot,  but  that 
he  held  it  for  any  length  of  time  is  most  improbable  as  he 
must  have  come  into  violent  collision  with  the  now  rapidly- 
growing  power  of  the  new  dynasty  of  Cholas.  The  boast  that 
he  took  Tanjore  is  no  doubt  a  mere  exaggeration.  In  his 
expedition  to  the  south  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  Krishna 
III  effectively  conquered  the  south  country  of  Cuddapah 
district  through  which  he  passed.  We  have  evidence,  how- 
ever, that  he  exacted  allegiance  from  the  local  chiefs,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  the  Vaidumbas  who  became  his 
feudatories. 

As  to  these  Vaidumbas  they  seem  to  have  ruled  independ-  The 
ently  a  tract  comprising  part  of  Mysore  and  the  south  of  '*'  "*"  "' 
Anantapur  district  from  very  early  times,  and  to  have  extended 
their  power  into  Rayachoti  taluk  as  early  as  the  8th  century 
to  which  period  is  ascribed  an  inscription  at  Ncrusupalle 
in  the  Surabhu  valley,  which  refers  to  a  Vaidumba  king. 
They  were  evidently  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Banas,  on 
whose  side  they  fought  at  the  battle  of  Soremati,  possibly 
Somapalle  of  Madanapalle  taluk,  in  A.D.  900,  of  which  we  learn 
from  a  lithic  record  set  up  near  Pedda  Tippasamudram. 

With  the  death  of  Krishna  III  the  power  of  the  Rashtra- 
kuta  dynasty  declined,  and  we  find  the  Vaidumbas  acknowl- 
edged, apparently  as  the  sovereign  authority,  as  far  north  as 
the  village  of  Animela  in  Kamalapuram  taluk  in  the  year 
A.D.  975-976. 

About    this    time    the    Cholas    began    to    establish    their   Rise  of  the 
authority  in  these  parts,  for  in   the  reign  of  the   Chola  king   Cholas. 
Rajaraja  I,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  A.D.  982,  a  Vaidumba 
chief  was  his  feudatory  and  ruled  over  the   "  Ingallur-nadu  " 


30 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  II. 


The  eastern 
division  of 
the  district 


The  Telugu 
Chodas. 


in  the  Cuddapah  district.  The  Ingallur-nadu  must  corre- 
spond to  a  tract  in  Pulivendla  taluk,  with  the  present  village 
of  Inagalur  as  its  headquarters.  From  an  inscription,  the 
date  of  which  corresponds  to  A.D.  1056-57,  we  learn  that  a 
Vaidumba  king  or  chief  named  BhTma  Maharaja  restored  a 
temple  at  Palagiri  in  Kamalapuram  taluk,  and  the  same  record 
refers  to  a  previous  grant  made  to  the  same  temple  by  the 
Rashtrakuta  king  Krishna  III  (died  A.D.  956).  The  Vaidumbas 
were  still  feudatories  of  the  Chola  kings  in  A.D.  1 102,  as  we 
learn  from  an  inscription  discovered  at  Rayachoti.  This  date 
falls  in  the  reign  of  the  Chola  king  Kulottunga  I  of  whom  we 
know  from  another  source  that  his  dominions  extended  even 
to  Kurnool.  They  must  have  included  the  whole  of  Cuddapah 
district,  for  the  taluks  of  Sidhout  and  Pullampet  were  at  this 
time  held  by  the  Telugu  Chodas  who  were  also  feudatories  of 
the  Cholas  and  originally  belonged  to  the  same  family. 

By  the  incursion  of  the  ancient  Cholas  into  the  Pallava 
country  at  the  end  of  the  5th  century  A.D.,  of  which  one,  if  not 
the  only,  lasting  result  had  been  the  establishment  of  a  small 
Chola  State  in  the  north-west  of  Cuddapah  district,  the  power 
of  the  Pallavas  suffered  only  a  temporary  eclipse.  During 
the  next  four  centuries,  with  Conjeeveram  as  their  capital, 
they  ruled  all  the  eastern  country,  including  the  present 
eastern  taluks  of  Cuddapah  district,  and  their  authority  as  far 
north  as  the  Kistna  was  undisputed.  Their  power  in  the  south 
was  however  permanently  crippled  by  the  severe  defeat 
inflicted  on  them  by  the  Chola  king  Aditya  I  under  whom  the 
new  dynasty  of  the  Cholas  first  assumed  importance.  This 
was  at  the  end  of  the  9th  century.  The  Pallavas,  though 
they  still  retained  their  hold  on  the  north  of  their  dominions, 
gradually  retreated,  till  at  the  beginning  of  the  Ilth  century  we 
find  the  Telugu  Chodas  governing  the  country  corresponding 
to  the  modern  district  of  Nellore,  and  the  taluks  of  Pullampet, 
Sidhout  and  possibly  Badvel. 

The  Telugu  Chodas  claim  the  same  ancestry  and  possess 
the  same  family  titles  as  the  Cholas.  That  the  word  Choda  is 
really  only  a  variant  of  Chola  now  admits  of  no  doubt.  They 
became  established  in  the  Telugu  country  in  the  century 
following  the  recrudescence  of  the  Chola  kingdom  already 
referred  to.  It  is  recorded  that  one  Dasavarman,  the  grand- 
father of  a  Choda  chieftain,  conquered  the  Paka-Rashtra  and 
ruled  at  Pottapi.  This  must  have  been  about  A.D.  1000 
Pottapi  has  been  identified  with  absolute  certainty  with  the 
village  of  that  name  situated  on  the  bank  of  the  river  Cheyyer 
in  Pullampet  taluk.     Later  Choda   chieftains  who  ruled  this 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  3I 

part  of  the  country   generally  assumed   the  title  Maduranta-    CHAP.  II. 

kan-Pottapi-Chola.       They    were    thus     feudatories     of    the  

Chola  kings.     What  Madurantakan   means  is  not  clear.     It  is 
curious  to  note  that  the  name  of  the  Chola  king  who  immedi- 
ately preceded  Rajaraja  I  and  ruled  from  A.D.  970  to  984  was 
Madurantaka    Uttama   Chola,    and    it    is    suggested    that    a 
younger  branch  descended  from  this  sovereign  held  this  part 
of  the  country  as   viceroys.     On   the  other  hand  the   name 
Madurantaka  may  be  merely  a  title.     But  from  the  fact  that 
several   inscriptions    of    Madurantakan-Pottapi-Cholas   have 
been  found  in  the  Chingleput  district  as  far  south  as  Maman- 
dur,    it    is    not  impossible  that  Madurantakan-Pottapi-Chola 
was  the  official   designation   of  the  officer  or  viceroy  of  the 
Cholas  administering  for  the  time  being  the  province   extend- 
ing   from    Madurantakam    (a    town    some    ten     miles   south 
of   Mamandur)   on   the   south  to  Pottapi  on  the  north.     The 
portion  of  this  Chola  province  corresponding  to  the  district  of 
Nellore  and  the  eastern   division  of   Cuddapah   district  was 
known  as  the  Paka-nadu,   and  the  Cuddapah  portion,  of  which 
Pottapi    was  the  headquarters,  was  the  Merpaka-nadu,  or  the 
west  Paka  country.     The  coast  part  of  the  province  was  pre- 
sumably Kll-paka,  of  which  perhaps  the  name  of  the  Kllpauk 
division  of  Madras  city  is  a  reminiscence.     A  rich  harvest  of 
information  has  been  obtained  from  lithic  records  discovered 
in  or  near  several  villages  on  the  banks  of  the  Cheyyer  river  in 
PuUampet  taluk,  such  as  Nandalur,  Lebaka,  and  Tangatur. 
The    great   Chola   king   Kulottunga  I  (A.D.   1070  to  II18)   is 
mentioned    in    an    inscription    at   Nandalur.     He  must    have 
passed  through  this  province   on   his   expedition  against  the 
Kalinga     country    (Vizagapatam    district).      His    successor's 
name  Vikrama  Chola  is  also  found  in  two  inscriptions  of  the 
same  place,  to  which  are  assigned  dates   corresponding  to 
A.D.  1 121   and   I126  respectively.     In  the  same   place  again 
there   is  a   record  of  Kulottunga   III  (A.D.    I178  to  I2l6),  of 
whom  we  know  from  another  source  that  his  territory  included 
Nellore.     The  name  of  his  successor  Rajarajadeva  III  is  also 
found  on  an  inscription   at  Nandalur.     During  this  and  the 
following  century  the  province  was  actually  administered  by 
the  Telugu  Chodas  and  from  their  inscriptions  which  contain 
genealogical  accounts  it   is   clear  that  the  office  of  governor 
became    hereditary.      It    happened    at     times,    through    the 
weakening  of  the  central  authority,  that   these  Madurantaka- 
Pottapi-Cholas     exercised      practically      sovereign     powers. 
Such  a  period  occurred  towards  the  end  of  the  I2th  century 
when  another  feudatory  or  viceroy  of  the  Cholas,  who  was  in 


32  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  II.  charge  of  a  province  of  which  the  headquarters  were  at  Vallur, 
near  Cuddapah,  boasts  to  have  "  levied  tribute  from  Kanchi." 
This  appears  to  refer  to  a  general  insurrection  of  the  northern 
provinces  of  the  Chola  Ivingdom  in  the  early  years  of  the  reign 
of  Kulottunga  III,  the  rebels  being  probably  set  on  or  encour- 
aged by  the  Eastern  Chalukyas  or  Pallavas.  Their  success, 
however,  was  shortlived,  for  in  A.D.  1196  Kulottunga  III 
regained  Conjeeveram  and  "  made  the  kings  of  the  north  pros- 
trate themselves  to  the  ground."  This  sovereign  entirely 
re-established  the  Chola  power  in  the  Paka-nadu.  During 
the  reign  of  his  successor  Rajarajadeva  III  (A.D.  1216  to  1243) 
the  power  of  the  Cholas  suffered  a  temporary  eclipse,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  aggression  of  the  Pandyas  in  the  south.  That 
the  Cholas  survived  this  set-back  is  chiefly  due  to  the  prowess 
and  loyalty  of  the  Madurantaka-Pottapi-Chola  Tikka  who 
was  then  administering  the  Paka-nadu.  We  find  him 
actually  at  Conjeeveram  during  the  reign  of  Rajarajadeva  III 
helping  that  weak  monarch  to  repel  the  attacks  of  the  Pandyas, 
one  of  whose  allies  was  the  Hoysala  king  from  the  west, 
whose  name  was  VTra-Someswara  (A.D.  T234  to  1253).  Not 
only  did  Tikka,  who  was  also  known  as  Gandagopala, 
establish  the  Chola  king  on  his  throne,  but  he  defeated  the 
Hoysala  king  and  "played  ball  with  the  head  of  Prithvi- 
swara  "  who  apparently  threatened  the  Paka-nadu  from  the 
north.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  after  the  defeat  of  Vira- 
Someswara  the  ambitions  of  the  Hoysala  kings  found  an 
outlet  further  north,  for  his  successor  Narasimha  III,  who 
reigned  from  A.D.  1254  to  1291,  is  referred  to  in  an  inscrip- 
tion found  at  Devagudipalle  of  Rayachoti  taluk,  which  shows 
that  by  that  time  at  any  rate  the  Vaidumbas,  who  formerly 
held  that  part  of  the  country,  had  been  dispersed.  Both  Tikka 
and  his  son  and  successor  Manumasiddhi  ruled  the  Paka-nadu 
from  Nellore,  though  both  of  them  held  the  title  Madurantaka- 
Pottapi-Chola.  Till  their  time  Pottapi  had  been  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Madurantaka-Pottapi-Cholas  who  governed 
the  Mer-paka-nadu,  the  rest  of  the  Paka-nadu  being  adminis- 
tered from  KandukCir  by  another  branch  of  the  same  family 
of  Telugu  Chodas  whose  distinguishing  name  or  title  seems 
to  have  been  Gandagopala.  Manumasiddhi,  who  ruled  at 
Nellore  and  owed  allegiance  to  the  Chola  king  Rajendra- 
Chola  III  (A.D.  1246  to  1268),  was  the  patron  of  the  Telugu 
poet  Tikkana-Somayaji  who  translated  a  portion  of  the 
Sanskrit  Mahabharata  into  Telugu  and  from  whose  writings 
we  learn  something  of  Manumasiddhi's  genealogy.  It 
happens  that  there  has  been   preserved  to  us  the  story  of  a 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  33 

land  dispute  in  the  Pottapi  division,  which  was  enquired  into    CHAP.  II 

and  settled  by  Manumasiddhi.     The  account  of  it  is  as  follows.         . 

Certain  Brahmans  of  Perungandura  got  into  trouble  with  the 
Vellalas  and  sought  the  intervention  of  the  Madurantaka- 
Pottapi-Chola  to  set  matters  right.  The  Brahmans  repre- 
sented to  him  that  a  grant  of  land  had  been  made  to  them  in 
fifty-two  shares  "  very  long  ago  "  by  a  certain  Pallava  king 
named  Mukkanti-Kaduvetti,  and  that  they  had  been  enjoying 
the  same  from  the  time  of  their  forefathers.  But  recently  the 
villagers  of  Sakali-Kodur  being  obliged  to  emigrate  owing  to 
a  disturbance  in  their  country  had  arrived  and  settled  near 
the  village  tank.  The  cultivators  of  Inumbrolu  or  Inumpudoli, 
had  also  put  up  some  huts  in  the  fields  of  Perungandura  as 
they  could  not  stop  in  their  own  village  on  account  of  plague. 
But  they  agreed  to  pay  compensation  amounting  to  the  total 
produce  of  the  fields  occupied  by  them.  Subsequently  the 
Brahmans  temporarily  left  Perungandura  owing  to  a  famine 
in  those  parts.  When  they  returned  they  found  that  the 
settlers  from  Sakali-Kodur  had  named  their  new  settlement 
Kodur.  The  Inumbrolu  cultivators  also  refused  to  pay  the 
stipulated  compensation  for  their  occupation  of  the  fields  of 
Perungandura.  Moreover  the  original  grant  made  to  the 
Brahmans  by  the  Pallava  king  was  ignored,  and  the  lands  had 
become  escheat  to  the  reigning  king.  On  the  complaint  of 
the  Brahmans  an  enquiry  was  held  by  Manumasiddhi,  and 
both  parties  were  invited  to  adduce  proof  by  ordeal.  In  the 
result,  the  ancient  grant  was  confirmed  to  the  Brahmans  and 
the  village  of  Kodur  restored  to  them  by  Manumasiddhi  in 
order  to  secure  religious  merit  for  his  father  Tikka.  It  is 
noticeable  that  the  inscription  makes  no  mention  of  the  Chola 
king,  which  leads  us  to  presume  that  Manumasiddhi  practi- 
cally ruled  independently  of  Rajendra  Chola  III  though 
nominally  his  viceroy  :  a  presumption  which  is  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  we  know  from  other  sources  that  the  power  of 
the  Cholas  was  at  this  time  declining.  As  to  the  identity  of  the 
places  mentioned  in  the  inscription  my  authority  conjectures 
that  the  Kodur  referred  to  may  be  Kodur  in  the  south  of 
PuUampet  taluk,  and  states  he  is  unable  to  identify  Perun- 
gandura. Its  identification  does  not,  however,  present  much 
difficulty.  It  must  be  Penagalur,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Cheyyer  river  in  that  taluk.  Very  near  Penagalur  are  two 
villages  Kondur  and  Indlur,  of  which  the  former  must  have 
been  the  settlement  from  Sakali-Kodur,  while  Indluru  is  none 
other  than  Inumbrolu  or  Inumpudoli  of  the  inscription.  As  to 
Sakali-Kodur,  Sakali  is  the  name  of  a  division  of  the  district, 
5 


34 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  II.    as  we  learn  from  a  Kakatlya  record  of  the  end  of  the   13th 

century,  and  that  it  practically  corresponded  to  the  present 

Badvel  taluk  is  conclusively  proved  by  a  later  inscription 
discovered  at  Porumamilla,  to  which  reference  will  be  made 
below.  Sakali-Kodur  is  therefore  the  village  of  that  name  in 
Badvel  taluk.  It  is  possible  that  Sagiler,  which  is  the  name 
of  the  only  river  of  importance  in  Badvel  taluk,  merely  connotes 
'the river  of  the  Sakali  country.'  The  rule  of  Manumasiddhi 
in  the  Paka-nadu  was  not  uneventful.  In  the  earlier  years  of 
his  reign  he  was  dispossessed  by  a  cousin,  Vijaya  Ganda- 
gopala,  of  the  branch  that  up  to  the  time  of  Tikka  ruled  the 
east  portion  of  the  province  from  Kandukur  or  Nellore. 
Manumasiddhi  being  ousted  sought  the  assistance  of  the 
Kakatlya  king  Ganapati  of  Warangal  and  obtained  it  by 
himself  fighting  on  the  side  of  that  king  in  a  battle  on  the 
banks  of  the  Godavari.  It  also  appears  that  the  poet  Soma- 
yaji  used  his  influence  with  the  Kakatlya  king  on  behalf  of 
his  patron.  In  the  result  Manumasiddhi  was  restored.  He 
formally  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of  the  Chola  king 
Rajendra  Chola  III  till  the  latter's  death  in  A.D.  1268,  when 
the  Cholas  seem  to  disappear  from  history  altogether  owing 
to  their  conquest  by  the  Pandyas. 

From  this  date  the  Pottapi  country,  as  was  already  the 
case  with  all  the  tract  corresponding  to  the  taluks  of  Jamma- 
lamadugu,  Proddatur,  Cuddapah,  Kamalapuram  and  probably 
Pulivendla,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ambadeva  who  had  tempo- 
rarily usurped  the  Kakatlya  crown.  He  ruled  this  part  of  his 
territory  from  Vallur,  some  ten  miles  west  of  Cuddapah,  and 
the  administrative  divisions  were  the  Gandikota-sTma,  the 
Muliki-nadu,  Renadu  and,  in  the  east  of  the  district,  the 
Sakali,  Yeruva  and  Pottapi  divisions.  During  the  time  of 
Ambadeva  a  land  survey  of  Pottapi-nadu  was  carried  out 
under  the  direction  of  his  subordinate  Peddinayaka,  and  a 
river  channel  was  constructed  at  Lebaka.  A  flood  bank  was 
also  thrown  up  to  prevent  the  waters  of  the  Cheyyer  from 
inundating  a  temple  in  the  village  of  Athirala.  Prataparudra 
was  the  Kakatlya  king  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  at 
Warangal  after  the  death  or  downfall  of  the  usurper  Ambadeva. 
The  Pottapi  country  continued  to  form  part  of  the  Kakatlya 
dominions,  and  with  the  death  of  Manumasiddhi  we  hear  no 
more  of  the  Telugu  Chodas  who  ruled  the  Paka-nadu  as 
feudatories  of  the  Cholas  of  the  south. 

With  the  opening  of  the  14th  century  we  thus  find  the 
whole  of  Cuddapah  district,  except  Rayachoti  taluk,  under 
the  sway  of  the  great  northern   kingdom  whose  capital  was 


The  Kakati 
yas  of 
\A'aranga!. 


First 

Muham- 

madan. 

invasion. 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  35 

Warangal  while  Rayachoti  taluk   was,  as  we  know,   in  the  r^j^p  u 

latter  part  of  the  13th  century,  included  in  the  territories  of  the  

Hoysalas.  In  A-D.  1309  came  the  invasion  of  the  Deccan  by  the 
Muhammadans  during  the  reign  of  the  Khilji  Emperor  AUah- 
ud-din.  Warangal  fell  and  with  it  the  Kakatlya  dynasty.  The 
whole  of  the  Carnatic  and  the  Coromandel  was  overrun  by  the 
invaders,  who  penetrated  to  the  extreme  south  of  the  Peninsula. 
The  subjection  of  the  country  was  completed  about  A.D.  1325 
when  Warangal  was  captured  and  king  Prataparudra  carried  a 
prisoner  to  Delhi.  But  in  A.-D.  1336  the  Vijayanagar  kingdom 
was  founded  by  Harihara  and  Bukka,  two  Hindu  refugees  from 
Warangal,  and  in  A.D.  1344  a  Hindu  confederation,  consisting 
of  the  son  of  Prataparudra  of  Warangal,  Krishna  Nayakkar  of 
Vijayanagar,  and  the  Hoysala  king  from  Mysore,  with  an 
immense  force  drove  the  Muhammadans  out  of  Warangal  and 
rolled  back  the  tide  of  their  advance.  The  outcome  of  this  was 
the  establishment  of  the  Vijayanagar  Empire.  During  the  two 
centuries  of  its  ascendency  it  included  the  whole  of  the 
present  Cuddapah  district. 

No  general  account  is  necessary  here  of  the  rule  of  the  .j-j^^, 
Vijayanagar  Emperors,  but  the  political  condition  of  Cuddapah  Vijayanagar 
district  from  the  14th  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  on  ^"^^P^e- 
which  some  interesting  light  has  been  recently  thrown  by  the 
discovery  of  inscriptions  may  be  briefly  summarised.  Within 
a  very  few  years  of  the  founding  of  the  empire  we  find  the 
whole  of  Cuddapah  district  and  probably  most  of  Nellore 
included  in  the  province  of  Udayagiri  (in  Nellore  district). 
This  province  was  ruled  over  by  a  son  of  the  Emperor  Kampa  I 
as  early  as  A.D.  1356,  and  this  fact  illustrates  what  was  appa- 
rently the  fixed  policy  of  the  Vijayanagar  dynasty,  namely, 
that  of  appointing  close  relatives  of  the  reigning  emperor  as 
viceroys  of  outlying  provinces.  The  great  importance  of  this 
province  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  the  next  reign  also  a  son 
of  the  emperor  was  viceroy.  This  was  in  the  reign  of  Bukka  I 
(A.D.  1352  to  1376),  when  we  learn  that  his  son  Baskara  when 
viceroy  of  the  Udayagiri  province  constructed  the  great  irriga- 
tion tank  at  Porumamilla  in  the  Badvel  taluk  in  the  year  A.D. 
1369.  From  the  inscription  which  records  this  event  and  from 
others  we  find  that  the  whole  of  the  Cuddapah  district  fell 
within  the  Udayagiri  province,  which  was  bounded  on  the 
south  by  the  Chandragiri  province,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Penukonda  province.  It  contained  two  main  districts  in  the 
country  that  now  includes  the  Cuddapah  district.  These  were 
the  Siddhavattam-sTma  and  the  Gandikota-slma.  The  former 
comprised  among  others  the  Sakali  and  Pottapi  sub-divisions 


^6  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.   II.    corresponding   respectively   to   the    Badvel    and    Pullampet 

. taluks,  so  that  the  Siddhavattam-slma  must  have  represented 

roughly  the  three  eastern  taluks  of  the  present  district.  All 
the  rest  of  the  Cuddapah  district  except  Rayachoti  taluk  fell 
in  the  Gandikota  district,  one  sub-division  of  which  was  the 
Muliki-nadu.  This  latter  was  extensive,  for  it  included 
Chennur,  Potladurti  and  Pulivendla,  all  of  which  appear  to 
have  been  the  headquarters  of  still  smaller  administrative 
units.  Rayachoti  taluk  was  also  included  in  the  Udayagiri 
province  but  apparently  in  a  different  district.  From  an 
inscription  at  Chilamakur  which  records  a  transfer  of  land  in 
A.D.  1382-83  we  again  find  that  the  Udayagiri  province  is 
ruled  by  a  son  of  the  reigning  emperor  Harihara  II.  This 
was  Prince  Devaraya  Odaiyar.  The  latter  name,  sometimes 
spelled  Odeya,  was,  as  is  made  clear  from  other  records, 
merely  a  title  of  the  viceroys  of  the  Vijayanagar  provinces. 
This  prince  subsequently  became  Emperor  and  ruled  from 
A.D.  1406  till  at  least  1417.  The  history  of  Cuddapah  during 
the  15th  century  A.D.  is  marked,  as  far  as  we  know,  by  no 
event  of  importance.  The  rule  of  the  Vijayanagar  emperors 
was  now  acknowledged  through  all  the  region  south  of  the 
capital,  and  the  country  enjoyed  peace  and  comparative 
prosperity.  The  military  forces  of  the  empire  were,  however, 
continually  engaged  in  resisting  the  Muhammadans  on  its 
northern  frontier,  while  on  the  east,  north  of  Udayagiri 
province,  its  borders  were  from  time  to  time  harassed  by  the 
Gajapati  king  of  Orissa  and  his  southern  feudatories,  of  whom 
probably  the  most  important  were  the  Reddis  of  KondavTdu, 
At  the  end  of  this  or  the  beginning  of  the  following  century 
Udayagiri  must  have  been  temporarily  lost  to  the  empire 
through  the  aggression  of  its  enemies  in  the  north-east,  for  it  is 
recorded  that  about  A.D.  1514  Krishnaraya,  the  greatest  of  the 
Vijayanagar  emperors,  captured  Udayagiri  and  defeated  and 
pursued  the  Gajapati  king  Prataparudra  as  far  as  KondavTdu, 
who  subsequently  sued  for  peace  and  acknowledged  Krishna- 
raya as  his  overlord.  An  inscription  found  at  Katteragandla 
in  Badvel  taluk,  from  which  we  learn  that  one  Yellamarasayya 
was  administering  the  Sakali  district  as  agent  of  the  Governor 
of  the  Udayagiri  province,  shows  that  the  Emperor  Krishnaraya 
was  ruling  as  late  as  A.D.  1530.  From  the  year  A.D.  1544 
several  inscriptions  have  been  found  in  the  district  in  which 
mention  is  made  of  the  Emperor  Sadasiva.  During  his  reign 
and  that  of  his  predecessor  Achyuta  the  decline  of  the  empire 
began.  The  empire  was  actually  governed,  while  Sadasiva 
still  occupied  the  throne,  by  his  brother-in-law  Ramaraja,  the 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  3f 

great   Hemraj  of   Muhammadan  historians,   and    his  brother   CHAP.  II. 

Tirumala,  the  founders  of  the  Karnata  dynasty  of  Vijayanagar         

rulers.  In  A.D.  1557-58  an  inscription  at  Munelli  in  Badvel 
taluk  shows  that  Tirumala  was  then  administering  the  empire 
on  behalf  of  the  puppet  Sadasiva,  while  Ramaraja  as  we  know 
from  other  sources  was  engaged  in  incessant  warfare  on  the 
northern  frontier.  Ramaraja  was  the  only  ruler  of  the  empire 
who  ever  made  any  headway  against  the  Muhammadans. 
We  are  told  that  he  wrested  several  districts  from  Bijapur, 
overran  Golconda,  laid  seige  to  the  capital  and  exacted  large 
concessions  from  its  king.  But  his  unprecedented  success 
had  the  effect  of  impelling  the  Muhammadan  kingdoms  to 
suspend  their  mutual  jealousies  and  unite  to  crush  the  Hindu 
sovereignty  of  the  Deccan  once  for  all.  Thus  it  came  about 
that  at  the  famous  battle  of  Talikota  in  January  1565,  the 
Hindus  and  Muhammadans,  with  forces  of  almost  fabulous 
strength,  contested  for  the  supremacy  of  the  Deccan.  In  the 
result  the  Raja  was  totally  defeated  and  slain,  and  his 
capital  taken  and  looted  by  the  Muhammadans.  The  Hindu 
power  in  the  south  was  irretrievably  broken,  but  dissensions 
among  the  victors  enabled  Tirumala,  the  brother  and  successor 
of  Ramaraja,  to  conserve  a  part  of  his  territory,  which  we 
may  note  still  included  the  whole  of  Cuddapah  district,  and 
to  carry  on  the  government  from  Penukonda.  He  was 
succeeded  in  1573-4  by  his  son  Ranga  who  shortly  afterwards 
transferred  his  capital  to  Chandragiri  in  the  Chittoor  district 
on  the  capture  of  Penukonda  by  the  Muhammadans  in  1 576  7. 
Ranga  was  followed  in  1586  by  his  brother  Venkatapati. 
A  record  from  Varikunta  in  Badvel  taluk  mentions  this  king 
as  ruling  from  Chandragiri  in  1602.  He  died  in  1614.  For 
thirty  years  afterwards  his  successors  continued  to  rule  the 
remnants  of  their  territory  with  Chandragiri  as  their  capital, 
but  in  1646  this  stronghold  as  well  as  Chingleput,  a  royal 
retreat  still  further  south,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  king  of 
Golconda.  But  long  before  this  time  they  had  ceased  to 
exercise  any  real  authority,  as  first  one,  then  another  of  their 
viceroys  threw  off  their  allegiance.  It  "appears,  however,  from 
numerous  inscriptions  that  up  to  the  death  of  Venkatapati 
the  Vijayanagar  suzerainty  was  nominally  acknowledged 
throughout  most  of  the  Cuddapah  district.  This  was  due  not 
only  to  the  prestige  of  the  dynasty  and  its  former  magnificence, 
but  to  the  fact  that,  unlike  the  rest  of  the  Ceded  Districts, 
this  part  of  the  country  was  not  immediately  affected  by  the 
Muhammadan  irruption  which  followed  the  track  of  the 
retreating  emperors.     In  pursuing  Sadasiva  and  Tirumala    to 


38  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  11.     Penukonda  after  the  battle  of  Talikota  the  king  of  Golconda 

left  Cuddapah  district  on  the  east,  and  after   dislodging  the 

emperor  from  Penukonda  and  establishing  Muhammadan 
influence  throughout  Bellary  and  Anantapur,  the  trend  of 
the  Muhammadan  invasion  turned  east  and  south  leaving 
Cuddapah  district  untouched  on  the  north.  It  was  not  till  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  that  the  Golconda  kings  turned 
their  attention  to  the  present  Cuddapah  district  and  surveyed 
the  country  for  revenue  purposes.  The  survey  took  four  years 
to  complete  and  the  amount  of  revenue  they  hoped  to  realise 
is  known  in  revenue  history  as  the  kamil  assessment.  This  was 
a  singularly  ineffective  undertaking,  for  all  traces  of  the  survey 
were  soon  obliterated  audit  does  not  appear  that  a  tithe  of  the 
assessment  was  ever  collected,  nor  is  this  a  matter  for  surprise 
as  the  country  had  never  been  conquered ;  yet  the  kamil 
assessment  was  utilized  by  later  governments  down  to  the 
British  occupation  as  a  sort  of  standard  by  which  to  measure 
the  tax-paying  capacity  of  the  district.  Till  the  reduction  of 
the  Golconda  kings  in  1687  by  Aurangzebe  the  only  repre- 
sentatives of  the  central  authority  in  the  Cudappah  district 
appear  to  have  been  the  Nawabs  of  Gandikota  and  Cuddapah, 
but  as  they  had  not  the  means  of  reducing  the  local  chiefs  who 
had  rendered  military  service  during  the  Vijayanagar  period 
their  political  importance  was  almost  negligible.  Subsequently 
Aurangzebe  was  continually  engaged  in  withstanding  the 
aggressions  of  the  Mahrattas,  so  that  with  the  opening  of  the 
l8th  century  the  condition  of  this  part  of  the  Deccan  fell 
little  short  of  anarchy. 

Rise  of  the  It  is  accordingly  from  the  date  of  the  battle  of  Talikota 

°  ^^"^^*  and  the  failure  of  the  Golconda  kings  to  establish  a  political 

ascendancy  in  any  way  comparable  to  that  of  the  Vijayanagar 
dynasty  that  we  trace  the  rise  of  local  chiefs  and  poligars, 
fostered  by  the  absence  of  any  effective  central  authority. 
These  petty  chieftains  who  in  fact  exercised  sovereign  rights 
within  their  jurisdiction  were  moreover  never  adequately 
dealt  with  by  the  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah  whose  authority 
subsequently  received  nominal  recognition  throughout  the 
district,  with  the  result  that  after  two  hundred  years  of  prac- 
tical independence,  their  reduction  was  only  accomplished 
by  British  troops  and  their  allegiance  won  by  the  unflinching 
determination  and  never-failing  tact  of  Sir  Thomas  Munro. 

The  Matla  Some  of  the  local  chiefs  of  Cuddapah  district  deserve  more 

princes.  than  a  passing  allusion.     By  far  the  most  important  was  the 

Matla  or  Matli  family  of  chieftains.  They  were  more  than 
poligars,  for  their  territory  amounted  to  a  principality,  and 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  39 

from  the  beginning  of  the  I/th  century  at  least  they  assume  the    CHAP.  II. 
title  of  Raja.     As  early  as  A.D.  1524  we  find  a  chief  of  this  — 

family  exercising  some  political  authority  in  the  Pottapi  sub- 
division of   the   Siddhavattam-sTma,   and   a   member   of    his 
family  constructed  an  anicut  near  the  village  of  Kondur.     In 
the  reign  of  the  Vijayanagar  king  Sadasiva  the  Matla  family 
became  allied  to  that  dynasty  by  marriage  and  acquired  con- 
siderable local  importance.     In  A.D.  1 570  Matla  Timmalaraja 
who  was  ruling  the  Pottapi-nadu  granted  the  revenue  of  some 
lands  in  the  village  of  Pondalur  to  a  temple  of  that   place. 
At  the  beginning  of  the    17th    century   they   seem    to  have 
extended  their  authority,   now  practically  uncontrolled,  over 
the  three  taluks  of  Badvel,  Sidhout  and   Pullampet.     This  was 
in  the  time  of  the  best  known  ruler  of  the  line,  whose  name  was 
Anantaraju  or  Anantaramaraju.     He  is  credited  with  having 
constructed  the  Badvel  tank,  and  one  of  the  villages  it  irrigates 
is  called  Anantarajupuram.    There   is    also  a   tradition   that 
Chennampalle  some  four  miles  from  Badvel  is  named  after 
his  wife  Chennamma.     In   A.D.  1604  he  repaired  the  walls  of 
the  temples  at  Sidhout  and  created  the  nucleus  of  the  fort 
which  was  afterwards  completed  by  a  Nawab  of  Cuddapah. 
He  appears  to  be  the  nephew  of  another  Matla  Ananta,  who 
was  the  author  of  the  Telugupoem  Kakusthavijayamu  and  one 
of  the  brothers  of  Timmalaraja  referred  to  above.     The  Matla 
princes  spent  a  good  deal  of  money   on   irrigation   works.     In 
addition  to  the  construction  of  the  Badvel  tank  and  the  anicut 
at  Kondur  already  alluded  to  a  later  prince  named  Perumalla- 
raja  built  a  sluice  in  the    big  tank   at  Lebaka  in    the  year 
A.D.  1718  while  it  is  recorded  that  yet  another  ruler  of  this 
family  dug  an  irrigation  channel  from  the  Cheyyer  in  Pottapi 
village.     It  is  interesting  to  note  that  they  took  the  title  of 
Devachodamaharaja  and  claimed  descent  from  the  Chola  kings, 
thus  establishing  their  political  continuity   with  the  Telugu 
Chodas  who  ruled  the  Madurantaka  Pottapi  country  as  feuda- 
tories of   the  Cholas  in  the  13th  century.     Towards  the  end 
of  the  17th  century  in  the  time  of  Venkataramaraja   we  find 
the  old  Pottapi-nadu  split  up   into  two  divisions  known  as 
the  Pulugunati-sTma   and   the    Pottapi-sTma.     On   the   whole 
the  administrative  changes  that  took    place  seem   to  be   as 
follows.     Under  the  Vijayanagar  kings  the  Matla  family  ruled 
the  Pottapi  division  from  Pottapi.     There  is  a  tradition  that 
Pottapi  was  abandoned  as   headquarters  on   account   of   its 
inferior  strategical  position.      The    Matlas   therefore   moved 
their  headquarters  to  Yerraguntlakota,  but  this  too  was  finally 
relegated    to    the   sub-divisional    officer    in    charge    of    the 


40  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  II.  Puliigunati  sub-division,  while  the  old  sub-division  of  Pottapi 
— -  was  administered  from  Tangatur,  and  the  headquarters  of  the 
Raja  became  Chitvel.  This  last  change  must  have  occurred 
about  the  time  that  Abdul  Nabi  Khan  became  Nawab  of 
Cuddapah,  for  in  l8oi  Munro  writes  of  the  Matla  family, 
"They  obtained  Chitvel  about  ninety  years  ago  to  support  a 
body  of  peons,  and  pay  an  annual  peshcash  which,  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest  of  Cuddapah  by  Haidar,  was  paid  to  the 
Nawabs  of  that  province  and  amounted  to  above  a  lakh  of 
rupees."  It  was  either  the  son  or  the  father  of  Venkatarama- 
raja,  named  Tiruvengalanatha  raja,  who  built  the  magnificent 
gopura  of  Govindaraja  at  lower  Tirupati.  The  second  Tiruven- 
galanatha was  ruling  in  A.D.  1705.  An  interesting  old 
document  of  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  gives  us 
the  genealogy  of  the  Matla  rajas  from  A.D.  1/21-22  to  the 
year  A.D.  1801-02  when  came  the  "  Kumphani  Government," 
in  -connection  with  which  is  mentioned  Colonel  Mantolu 
Sahib  (Munro).  This  record  tells  us  that  about  A.D.  1780  the 
Raja  governed  under  the  Sultan  for  six  years,  and  for  three 
years  subsequent  thereto  "  the  Sultan  ruled."  Thereafter  the 
Raja  seems  to  have  come  to  his  own  again  until  the  time  of 
Company.  "  The  Sultan  "  here  referred  to  is  Haidar  Ali,  who 
died  in  1782  and  his  son  Tipu  Sultan.  Under  Haidar  Ali,  the 
old  sub-division  of  Cuddapah  district  which  includes  the  pre- 
sent taluk  of  Rayachoti  was  administered  by  Mir  Sahib,  the 
Governor  of  Gurramkonda.  Haidar  Ali  himself,  assisted  by 
Mir  Sahib,  finally  reduced  the  Cuddapah  Nawab  and  carried 
him  and  his  family  prisoners  to  Seringapatam  in  A.D.  1780. 
The  effect  of  this  event  was  not  only  felt  by  the  Matla 
princes  but  by  the  poligars  throughout  the  district.  As 
Munro  points  out  in  his  letter  dated  20th  March  l802  to  the 
Board  of  Revenue  concerning  the  poligars  "  Haidar  Ali  was 
the  only  Indian  sovereign  we  know  of  who  ever  subdued  all 
his  petty  feudatories  and  was  really  master  of  his  country.  " 
Unfortunately  for  the  peace  of  the  country  Tipu  was 
obliged  to  cede  all  his  Cuddapah  possessions  to  the  Nizam  in 
A.D.  1792  with  the  result  that  the  local  chieftains  all  returned 
and  resumed  their  independence  confident  in  the  weakness  of 
the  central  authority.  Munro's  reports  are  eloquent  of  the 
effect  on  the  country  caused  by  a  period  of  eight  years'  anarchy 
immediately  preceding  the  transfer  of  the  Ceded  Districts  to 
the  British  in  A.D.  1800.  But  before  giving  a  more  general 
account  of  the  poligars  of  the  district  and  Munro's  adminis- 
tration we  must  revert  to  a  closer  consideration  of  the  history 
of  the  country  under  the  Nizam,  when  the  whole  of  the  present 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  4I 

district  was,  at  least  nominally,  governed  by  the  Nawab  of    CHAP.  II. 

Cuddapah.  

As  already  stated,  a  pretty  long  period  elapsed  between 
the  battle  of  Talikota  and  the  establishment  of  Muhammadan 
rule  in  Cuddapah  district,  for  the  reason  that  the  Muham- 
madan kings  of  the  Deccan,  besides  continually  quarrelling 
with  each  other,  were  occupied  during  the  next  century  in  the  The  Nawabs 
final  annihilation  of  the  Vijayanagar  Empire  and  in  continual  of  Cuddapah. 
wars  with  the  Mahrattas.  It  is  not  until  the  Nizam  of  Hydera- 
bad began  to  rule  the  Deccan  as  a  practically  independent 
monarch  in  the  early  part  of  the  l8th  century  that  the  Nawabs 
of  Cuddapah  attain  to  any  political  importance.  For  a  whole 
century  their  authority  must  have  been  very  restricted,  for  we 
find  that  as  late  as  A.D.  1694  a  governor  of  the  Siddhavattam- 
sTma  was  appointed  by  the  Nawab  of  Arcot  and  given  by 
him  a  jagir  of  three  villages.  The  first  Nawab  of  Cuddapah 
to  assert  his  control  of  the  district  was  Abdul  Nabi  Khan 
whose  governorship  began  in  the  year  A.D.  1714.  He  was  a 
man  of  considerable  energy  and  ability,  for  he  extended  his 
province  as  far  south  as  Punganur  and  even  levied  tribute  in 
the  Baramahal.  He  established  garrisons  at  Gandikota  in 
the  north  and  Gurramkonda  in  the  south,  but  made  no  real 
attempt  to  reduce  the  country  to  order.  The  local  poligars  in 
the  Gurramkonda  country  were  allowed  to  continue  undis- 
turbed as  long  as  they  shared  their  ill-gotten  gains  with  the 
Muhammadan  governors.  In  1732  the  name  of  the  ruling 
Nawab  was  Mahazid  Khan,  the  son  of  Abdul  Nabi  Khan. 
But  in  the  year  1740  a  Nawab  of  the  latter  name  is  mentioned 
in  connection  with  a  raid  by  the  Mahrattas.  This  Nawab  was 
probably  a  grandson  of  the  first  Abdul  Nabi  Khan.  In 
military  prowess  he  was  certainly  far  inferior  to  the  earlier 
Nawab.  In  May  A.D.  1740  the  Mahrattas  invaded  the  country, 
defeated  the  Nawab  of  Kandanur  (Kurnool)  and  marched 
against  Cuddapah  with  a  force  of  cavalr^^  said  to  have  been 
40,000  or  50,000  strong.  A  day's  fighting  then  ensued  be- 
tween the  Mahrattas  and  the  Nawab.  Abdul  Nabi  Khan  was 
defeated  and  sent  away  his  family  for  safety  to  the  fort  of 
Gandikota,  himself  retreating  southwards.  He  was  again 
engaged  by  the  Mahrattas  "  in  the  defile,"  which  seems  to 
indicate  the  Guvvalacheruvu  ghat.  Here  he  was  once  more 
defeated  but  made  his  peace  with  the  marauders  by  giving 
them  a  lakh  and  a  half  of  rupees  and  other  presents.  The 
Mahrattas  then  proceeded  southwards,  defeated  and  killed  the 
Nawab  of  Arcot,  Dost  Ali  Khan,  in  a  cavalry  engagement  ai 
"the   pass"  which    must    have    been   the    descent   from  the 


42  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  II.    plateau  from  Pller  to  Damalcheruvu,  and  overran  all  the  south 

country.     After  subsisting  for  several  months  on  the  proceeds 

of  raids  and  robbery  they  finally  invested  Trichinopoly  which 
was  surrendered  to  them  by  Chanda  Sahib,  its  Governor,  on 
March  30th,  1741.  They  then  returned  to  their  own  country- 
Early  in  1743  the  Nizam  himself  with  a  huge  following  visited 
the  south  country  and  made  a  friendly  arrangement  with 
the  Mahrattas  by  ceding  to  them  Penukonda  in  exchange  for 
their  restoration  of  Trichinopoly.  In  this  expedition  the  sons 
of  Abdul  Nabi  Khan  followed  in  the  Nizam's  train.  Their 
names  are  given  as  Path  Miah  and  Baday  Miah.  A  crowd  of 
poligars  also  accompanied  them.  It  may  be  mentioned  here 
that  the  opinion  sometimes  held  that  the  Mahratta  and 
Muhammadan  descents  from  the  north  into  the  south  country 
were  by  way  of  Tirupati  seems  to  be  incorrect.  The  route 
taken  from  Cuddapah  on  both  occasions  was  almost  certainly 
through  Rayachoti,  Kalakada,  Pller  and  Damalcheruvu,  and 
so  to  Arcot.  That  the  Nizam  did  not  get  to  Arcot  by  way  of 
Tirupati  on  this  occasion  is  beyond  doubt,  for  we  are  told  that 
it  was  rumoured  after  his  arrival  at  Arcot  that  he  would  visit 
Tirupati  and  from  thence  pass  south  through  Conjeeveram. 
If  he  had  already  passed  Tirupati  on  his  way  to  Arcot,  this 
statement  would  be  incomprehensible.  Besides,  so  far  as  the 
Muhammadans  were  concerned,  the  route  from  Rayachoti  to 
Pller  lay  entirely  within  that  part  of  the  country  controlled 
by  their  stronghold  at  Gurramkonda,  whereas  the  eastern 
division  beyond  the  Seshachalams  was,  as  far  as  is  known, 
ungarrisoned.^  The  presumption  that  they  took  the  central  and 
more  direct  route  is  also  supported  by  the  fact  that  at  the 
present  day  Musalmans  are  far  more  numerous  in  the  towns  and 
villages  through  which  it  passes  than  in  the  east  of  the  district. 
After  concluding  his  treaty  with  Morari  Rao  at  Trichi- 
nopoly the  Nizam  left  that  place  in  October  1743,  and  returned 
northwards.  But  before  he  reached  his  capital  his  army  was 
intercepted  early  in  1744  by  another  Mahratta  force  which 
broke  through  his  lines  and  penetrated  to  the  Carnatic.  For 
many  years  subsequently  the  country  stretching  from  Kurnool 
on  the  north  to  Arcot  on  the  south  was  distracted  by  similar 
conflicts  between  the  Muhammadans  and  the  Mahrattas.  The 
latter  were  almost  always  successful,  though  one  exception 
is  recorded,  when  in  May  1746  Muhammad  Ali  Khan,  son  of  the 
Nawab  of  Arcot,  marched  to  Kurnool,  and  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Nawabs  of  Kurnool  and  Cuddapah  defeated  the  Mahratta 
chief  BapOji   Nayakkan,    who    retired   with  loss.     In   1750  a 

^  Sidhoul  was  fortified  at  a  later  date. 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  4J 

tragedy,  which  plays  an  important  part  in  Indian  history,  took    CHAP.  IL 

place,  in  which  a  Cuddapah  chief  took  a  prominent  share.     In  

this  year  Nasir  Jung  was  besieging  Ginjee  and  was  attended 
by  his  vassals,  the  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah,  Kurnool  and  Sava- 
nore.  His  title  of  succession  as  Nizam  had  been  disputed  by 
his  nephew  Muzaffar  Jung,  whose  cause  had  been  adopted  by 
the  French.  Under  the  orders  of  M.  Dupleix,  M.  Bussy,  by 
a  daring  attack,  captured  the  fort  of  Ginjee,  hitherto  deemed 
impregnable.  Nasir  Jung  advanced  to  recapture  it  and 
Muzaffar  Jung  marched  to  relieve  the  garrison.  Previous  to 
the  meeting,  however,  Dupleix  deserted  his  ally,  and  Muzaffar 
Jung,  thinking  his  cause  hopeless,  surrendered  to  his  uncle 
Nasir  Jung.  The  desertion  of  the  French  troops  was  only  a 
part  of  a  deep-laid  conspiracy,  to  which  the  principal  chiefs 
of  Nasir  Jung  had  been  gained  over.  On  the  occasion  of  a 
sally  from  the  Fort,  Nasir  Jung  went  forth  to  head  his  troops 
and  passing  by  the  elephant  of  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah  he 
paused  to  salute  his  vassal.  The  salute  was  not  returned; 
and,  thinking  that  in  the  dim  light  of  the  morning  it  had  not 
been  perceived,  Nasir  Jung  raised  himself  in  his  howdah  to 
repeat  it.  He  was,  however,  greeted  with  a  salute  from  a 
loaded  carbine  and  fell  mortally  wounded  by  two  bullets. 
Muzaffar  Jung  was  at  once  proclaimed  Nizam  and  proceeded 
to  Pondicherry,  where  he  was  formally  installed  by  Dupleix 
with  much  solemnity  and  state.  The  opening  scene  of  this 
tragedy  took  place  in  the  present  district  of  South  Arcot,  but 
the  closing  scene  took  place  in  the  Cuddapah  district,  and  in 
this  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah  plays  an  equally  conspicuous  and 
discreditable  part-  Whilst  Muzaffar  Jung  was  lingering  in 
Pondicherry,  bestowing  lavish  presents  on  the  French,  and 
discussing  treaties  for  the  joint  government  of  Southern 
India,  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah,  disgusted  that  he  had  not 
gained  as  much  as  he  had  expected,  had  retired  to  his  district. 
Indeed,  the  only  persons  who  seem  to  have  benefited  by  this 
act  of  treachery  were  the  French  and  Haidar  Ali,  whose  clever 
thieves,  in  the  confusion  resulting  from  Nasir  Jung's  death, 
had  managed  to  decamp  with  two  elephants  loaded  with  trea- 
sure, which  afterwards  proved  of  much  service  to  Haidar  when 
recruiting  his  army.  When  he  arrived  in  his  district,  the 
Cuddapah  Nawab  formed  a  conspiracy  with  other  Pathan 
Chiefs,  and  when  Muzaffar  Jung  was  marching  northwards 
from  Pondicherry  to  Hyderabad,  to  take  possession  of  his  new 
Government,  the  conspirators  met  him  at  the  narrow  pass  of 
Lakkireddipalle  in  the  Rayachoti  taluk  of  the  Cuddapah 
district.     In  the  conflict  that  ensued,  Muzaflar  Jung  fell  struck 


44  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  II.     down  by  a  javelin  thrown  by  the  Nawab  of  Kurnool  (January 
—  1751)-     The  name  of  the  dastardly  conspirator  who  engineered 

this  double  treachery  has  not  come  down  to  us.  It  has  been 
thought  that  he  was  merely  the  guardian  of  the  minor  Abdul- 
alam  Khan.  But  that  he  was  the  de  facto  Nawab  of  Cud- 
dapah  admits  of  no  doubt.  He  seems  to  have  been  mortally 
wounded  at  this  very  affray  at  Lakkireddipalle,  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  Abdul-alam  Khan,  the  minor,  then  assumed  the 
governorship.  This  latter  is  the  last  of  the  Nawabs  of  Cud- 
dapah.  In  his  time  (l757)  the  Cuddapah  district  was  overrun 
by  the  Mahrattas  under  Balavanta  Rao  who  gained  a  decisive 
battle  over  the  Muhammadans  near  the  town  of  Cuddapah. 
It  was  apparently  on  this  occasion  that  the  Mahrattas  were 
bought  off  by  the  cession  of  Gurramkonda. 
Haidar  Aii  About  this  time  the  rise  of  Haidar  Ali  constitutes  a  new 

of  Mysore.  element  in  the  political  forces  which  shaped  the  destinies  of 
Cuddapah.  This  daring  adventurer  had  obtained  complete 
control  of  the  Mysore  army  by  1761  when  he  persuaded  the 
feeble  Raja  to  resign  the  sceptre  to  him  and  to  retire  into 
private  life  on  an  annuity.  Haidar  Ali  obtained  possession  of 
Gurramkonda  in  1766,  temporarily  lost  it  to  the  Mahrattas  in 
1772,  but  regained  it  early  in  1774  through  his  son  Tipu. 
Until  1779  Haidar  had  no  excuse  for  extending  his  raids  into 
Cuddapah  any  further  than  Gurramkonda,  but  in  that  year 
the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah,  Abdul-alam  Khan,  having  refused 
to  supply  the  military  contingent  he  had  bound  himself  to 
furnish  when  Tipu  re-conquered  Gurramkonda  from  the 
Mahrattas,  Haidar  despatched  a  force  under  Mir  Sahib,  the 
Governor  of  Gurramkonda,  to  punish  him  for  his  disobedience. 
This  force  was  too  small  to  effect  anything  decisive,  but  in  the 
following  year  Haidar  himself  took  the  field  and,  effecting 
a  junction  with  Mir  Sahib,  gave  battle  to  the  forces  of  the 
Nawab  near  the  small  fortified  town  of  Duvvur  on  the 
banks  of  the  Kunder,  about  ten  miles  north-east  of  Prod- 
datur.  The  Nawab's  cavalry  were  defeated  in  the  open 
field  and  driven  into  the  town,  which  they  surrendered  at 
discretion.  The  Nawab  himself  escaped  to  the  fort  of 
Sidhout,  which  was  at  once  invested  by  Haidar  and  captured 
without  much  difficulty.  The  Nawab  and  his  family  were 
then  sent  prisoners  to  Seringapatam  where  he  finally  died  in 
captivity.  At  the  close  of  this  conquest  Haidar  Ali  left  for 
Mysore,  having  first  added  Sidhout  and  Cuddapah  to  the 
jagir  of  Gurramkonda  held  by  his  brother-in-law,  Mir  Sahib, 
who  was  now  left  in  charge  of  the  whole  district  on  the 
condition    of  maintaining   the   requisite  garrisons  and   3,000 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  45 

horse,      Mir    Sahib,    who    died    in     1781,   and   his    son    and    CHAP.  II. 

successor  Kamal-ud-din,  were  the  first   rulers  of  the  district         

who  seriously  grappled  with  the  problem  of  the  poligars,  the 
importance  of  which  was  fully  recognised  by  Haidar  Ali.  In 
the  words  of  Munro  "  The  Cuddapah  Nawabs  expelled  some 
of  them  (poligars),  but  neither  they  nor  the  Mahrattas  were 
ever  able  to  reduce  the  rest,  or  even  enforce  the  regular  pay- 
ment of  their  peshkash.  Haidar  was  engaged  in  such  constant 
and  extensive  wars  that  he  had  not  leisure  to  root  out  the 
poligars  so  entirely  as  he  would  otherwise  have  done.  He 
however  took  the  surest  means  of  disabling  them  from  disturb- 
ing his  Government.  Those  who  fled  were  deterred  from 
returning  by  a  strong  detachment  stationed  in  their  country 
and  those  who  fell  into  his  hands  were  ever  after  obliged 
to  remain  near  him."  As  an  example  of  this  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  Haidar  took  away  the  Matla  Raja  of  Chitvel 
with  him  in  1780.  Munro  continues  "  Tipu  in  the  early  part 
of  his  reign  pursued  the  same  measures,  but  when  his  power 
was  reduced  by  the  campaigns  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  and  when 
he  afterwards  weakened  it  still  more  himself  by  parcelling  out 
his  country  into  a  vast  number  of  minute  amildaris  in  order 
to  provide  for  a  host  of  ignorant,  corrupt  and  needy  Musal- 
mans,  the  fugitive  poligars,  though  they  did  not  think  it 
prudent  to  risk  their  own  persons  in  the  country,  contrived  by 
means  of  their  emissaries  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  Asophs 
to  their  collecting  most  of  their  ancient  rusunis  and  even  the 
rents  of  their  villages  on  condition  of  their  giving  them  a  part 
.  .  .  so  that  several  years  previous  to  the  death  of  the  sultan 
the  poligars  of  Gurramkonda  were  without  his  knowledge 
drawing  large  annual  contributions  from  their  old  possessions. 
When  Kamal-ud-din  Khan  besides  his  jagir  in  Gurramkonda 
received  from  the  Nizam  the  management  of  the  remaining 
part  of  that  province,  he  found  himself  too  weak  to  drive  out 
the  poligars  who  had  recovered  their  hereditary  districts 
during  the  war,  and  he  therefore  granted  them  terras  which 
he  meant  to  observe  only  while  he  found  it  convenient ;  but 
they  broke  them  before  him  by  withholding  their  kists,  and  a 
fruitless  expedition,  which  he  undertook  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  payment,  only  ended  in  laying  waste  the  country  and 
in  placing  the  recovery  of  the  balances  at  a  greater  distance 
than  ever.  In  that  part  of  the  Ceded  countries  which  fell  to 
the  Nizam  by  the  treaties  of  Mysore  and  Seringapatam,"  i.e. 
in  1792, — they  included  the  whole  of  Cuddapah  district — 
"  his  officers,  from  indolence  or  weakness,  not  only  allowed 
the  poligars  to  return  but  sometimes  invested  them  with  the 


46 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  II. 


Transfer  of 
Cuddapah 
to  the  British. 


The  work  of 
Muaro. 


management  of  sircar  villages  in  addition  to  their  own  .  .  . 
The  Mysore  system,  which  resumed  all  poligarships,  expelled 
their  turbulent  chiefs  and  levied  an  additional  body  of  troops 
to  prevent  their  return,  was  in  every  respect,  whether  for  main- 
taining the  authority  of  Government,  or  the  tranquillity  of  the 
country,  infinitely  preferable  to  that  of  the  Nizam  which,  at 
a  greater  expense  incurred  by  the  necessity  of  frequent 
expeditions,  suffered  them  to  retain  their  power,  to  commit 
every  kind  of  depredations,  and  on  every  favourable  con- 
juncture to  set  the  Government  itself  at  defiance." 

In  the  year  l8oo  the  Hyderabad  contingent  was  increased 
to  eight  battalions,  and  districts  (including  the  whole  of 
modern  Cuddapah)  yielding  sixty-three  lakhs  a  year  were 
made  over  by  the  Nizam  in  perpetual  sovereignty  to  the  East 
India  Company,  under  the  stipulation  that  the  British  Govern- 
ment should  guarantee  all  the  remaining  territories  of  the 
Nizam  from  every  attack.  In  their  order,  dated  October  24th, 
1800,  the  Government  of  Madras  acquainted  Major  Thomas 
Munro,  as  he  then  was,  with  the  particulars  of  this  treaty,  and 
posted  him  as  Principal  Collector  of  "  the  whole  of  these 
extensive  territories,"  with  four  Sub-Collectors  under  his 
immediate  authority.  For  the  purpose  of  establishing  the 
British  authority  in  the  Ceded  Provinces,  Colonel  Wellesley 
(afterwards  the  Duke  of  Wellington)  was  simultaneously 
ordered  to  move  with  all  the  troops  under  his  command  at 
Hubli  to  Adoni,  and  to  detach  a  small  portion  of  the  troops 
in  Mysore  in  order  to  meet  the  Principal  Collector's  "  unavoid- 
able demand  for  military  aid."  Less  than  a  month  after 
taking  charge.  Major  Munro  reports  as  follows:  "By  every 
report  which  has  reached  me,  it  appears  that  almost  every 
poligar,  however  insignificant,  who  had  been  expelled  since 
the  beginning  of  Haidar's  usurpation,  has  been  within  these 
few  years  permitted  to  resume  the  management  of  his  district." 

At  the  opening  of  the  19th  century  we  thus  enter  on  the 
last  phase  of  the  history  of  the  Cuddapah  district,  namely, 
the  subjugation  of  the  poligars,  the  establishment  of  a  well 
ordered  government  and  the  inauguration  of  the  revenue 
system  which  obtains  at  the  present  day.  All  this  was  the 
work  of  the  great  Munro,  who  later  became  Sir  Thomas 
Munro,  Governor  of  Madras.  Of  so  high  an  order  were  the 
energy,  ability,  foresight  and  determination  which  he  brought 
to  the  task  that  he  accomplished  in  the  short  period  of 
seven  years  what  might  have  taxed  the  powers  of  a  whole 
generation  of  administrators  endowed  with  less  extraordinary 
talents.     To  these  qualities  was  added  also  the  incalculable 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  47 

factor  of  a  magnetic  personality,  to  which  much  of  his  success    CHAP.  II. 

with  the  people  of  the  country  must  be  attributed.     It  made         

such  an  indelible  impression  on  all  who  came  in  touch  with 
him,  that  they  remembered  him  all  their  lives  and  bequeathed 
to  their  children  the  story  of  his  greatness,  which  so  grew 
in  the  telling  that  by  the  middle  of  the  century  many  tradi- 
tions and  legends  of  a  semi-sacred  character  were  associated 
with  his  name.  These  survive  to  the  present  day,  and  though 
what  he  did  is  now  forgotten,  the  memory  of  the  man  is 
preserved  in  the  hearts  of  the  people  for  ever. 

In  describing  the  state  of  the  country  when  the  Ceded  The  Poiigars 
Districts  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Company,  Munro  ^"^  '^.'-'" 
enumerates  80  different  poiigars,  of  whom  a  large  number 
were  in  the  present  Cuddapah  district.  Most  of  these  were 
grouped  round  the  more  influential  poiigars  to  whom  they 
paid  the  same  sort  of  allegiance  as  their  nominal  chiefs  paid 
to  the  ruling  sovereign  power-  A  peculiarity  of  all  these 
poiigars  was  that  every  one,  however  petty  his  territory,  kept 
up  a  mimic  court ;  nominal  officers  were  appointed,  holding 
the  same  titles  as  similar  officers  in  the  sovereign  courts,  and 
a  small  standing  army  was  maintained  of  permanently 
appointed  peons,  aided  by  a  militia  of  relatives  of  these 
peons,  who  were  liable  to  be  called  out  in  times  of  disturbance. 
These  small  standing  armies  were  but  seldom  paid,  and  the 
greater  part  of  their  earnings  were  gained  by  their  depreda- 
tions in  time  of  war.  During  peace  these  bodies  of  peons 
continued  their  usual  practices  and  earned  their  livelihood  by 
pillaging  border  villages.  The  consequence  was  that  every 
village  exposed  to  their  ravages  (and  the  territories  of  each 
poligar  were  so  small,  that  there  were  few  that  were  not  more 
or  less  affected  by  them)  endeavoured  to  put  itself  in  a  state 
of  defence  sufficient  to  ward  off  these  attacks.  In  most 
villages  of  the  district  are  still  to  be  seen  a  ruined  watch- 
tower  or  the  outline  of  a  fort,  and  sometimes  the  vestiges  of 
turrets  and  bastions.  Where  a  \  illage  was  wealthy  or 
populous  enough  to  be  able  to  defend  itself  against  the 
attacks  of  these  border  robbers,  it  advanced  in  the  course  of 
a  few  years  from  the  defensive  to  the  offensive.  The 
principal  inhabitant  became  the  chief  of  the  village,  the 
servants  employed  by  the  villagers  to  defend  their  common 
property  were  under  his  orders,  and  so,  after  a  few  years 
(supposing  that  in  the  interim  his  village  had  not  been  sacked 
or  burnt),  the  village  chief  emerged  as  a  petty  poligar.  A 
few  years  more  added  somewhat  to  his  pretensions,  and  in  a 
short  time  he  attempted  to  imitate  the  poiigars  who   were 


48  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  II.  so  lately  his  aggressors,  and  established  his  mimic  court, 
his  standing  army,  and  his  raids  of  plunder.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  the  Ceded  Districts,  and  more  especially 
that  portion  of  them  above  the  ghats,  were  nothing  more 
than  a  nest  of  robbers,  and  the  ryots  and  country  people  were 
tormented  by  a  continual  state  of  violence  and  rapine.  It  is 
almost  impossible  to  imagine  a  country  from  which  it  would 
be  more  difficult  to  raise  a  permanent  revenue  ;  for  payment 
of  any  kind  was  exactly  what  every  one  from  the  highest  to 
the  lowest  was  the  least  accustomed  to. 

In  order  to  deal  more  promptly  with  the  prevalent  disorder 
the  Government  of  Madras  had,  when  appointing  Munro  as 
Principal  Collector  of  the  Ceded  Districts,  directed  that  until 
his  authority  should  have  been  established  in  the  country  his 
correspondence  should  be  "  immediate  with  his  Lordship," 
but  as  soon  as  circumstances  should  appear  to  render  it 
expedient  he  should  subject  himself  to  the  authority  of  the 
Board  of  Revenue.  Munro  carried  out  his  operations  so 
quickly  and  effectually  that  in  March  l8oi  he  was  able 
to  settle  the  revenues  of  the  Gurramkonda  country  and 
in  April  we  find  from  his  correspondence  that  the  Board 
of  Revenue  had  assumed  control  of  the  whole  district.  One 
of  the  difficulties  confronting  Munro  at  the  outset  was  the 
presence  of  bodies  of  the  Nizam's  troops  who  refused  to 
leave  the  country  until  their  arrears  of  pay  were  settled.  This 
Munro  did  at  once,  leaving  the  money  to  be  recovered  after- 
wards. At  the  same  time  the  poligars  were  kept  in  check  by 
a  proclamation  declaring  that  every  chieftain  who  garrisoned 
a  fort,  maintained  an  armed  force,  or  levied  contributions, 
would  be  treated  as  a  rebel.  This  was  not  a  mere  threat,  as 
in  May  iBoi  Major-General  Campbell  marched  against 
Vemula  in  the  Pulivendla  taluk  and  reduced  the  poligar  to 
obedience  by  demolishing  his  fort.  From  there  the  general 
proceeded  to  Pullampet  taluk  and  forcibly  dispossessed  the 
Matla  raja  of  Chitvel.  But  Munro's  summary  manner  of 
treating  these  petty  chieftains  did  not  meet  with  universal 
approval.  The  Governments  of  Madras  and  Calcutta  gave 
it  their  sanction,  but  the  Court  of  Directors  condemned  it  in 
the  strongest  language  as  "  not  only  disingenuous,  but  harsh 
and  ill-considered,"  and  called  upon  Munro  for  a  complete 
explanation  of  his  motives,  threatening  that,  if  this  proved 
unsatisfactory,  he  would  be  removed  from  his  appointment 
and  never  again  employed  on  revenue  work  "  for  which  the 
violent  and  mistaken  principles  of  his  conduct  seemed  to 
render  him  unfit."    The  Directors  wished  the   poligars  to  be 


POLITICAL  HISTORY  49 

upheld  in  their  right  and  enjoyment  of  the   soil,  and  trusted   CHAP.  II. 

that  a  gradual  course  of  good  government  would  wean  them         

from  "their  feudal  habits  and  principles, "  and  turn  them 
into  peaceful  citizens.  Munro's  reply  of  22nd  February  1805 
is  an  unassailable  defence  of  his  position.  He  shows  that 
neither  on  the  ground  of  their  ancient  rights  nor  of  their  later 
conduct  were  the  poligars  entitled  to  "  gentle  measures  "  and 
that  their  "  feudal  habits  and  principles  "  consisted  of  crimes, 
oppressions  and  contumacies  which  if  permitted  to  continue 
would  have  rendered  good  government  impossible.  The  Direc- 
tors said  no  more  and  Munro's  policy  gave  the  district  the  first 
taste  of  tranquillity  which  it  had  known  for  many  years. 
He  steadily  followed  each  delinquent ;  and,  though  at  times 
when  the  forces  under  his  orders  were  employed  on  other  duty 
he  was  compelled  to  remain  quiet  (for  he  made  a  point  of  • 
never  using  force  until  he  knew  that  he  had  sufficient  troops 
to  render  resistance  unavailing),  he  always  carried  his  pur- 
pose in  the  end.  For  months  perhaps  the  fugitive  poligar 
would  be  going  from  one  friendly  chief  to  another,  endeavour- 
ing to  incite  each  into  rebellion,  and  at  the  commencement 
of  Munro's  rule  these  men  perhaps  ridiculed  the  ineffectual 
manner  in  which  the  Company's  Collector  carried  his  orders 
into  force  ;  but  Munro  never  moved  from  the  line  he  had 
adopted.  He  had  at  first  only  a  limited  number  of  troops  at 
his  disposal.  He  employed  them,  as  occasion  demanded,  in 
hunting  out  or  reducing  the  forts  of  the  absconding  poligars, 
but  he  never  allowed  them  to  be  diverted  from  the  object  they 
had  in  view.  Other  poligars  might  disobey  his  orders,  might 
abscond  or  attempt  to  raise  rebellion  ;  but  for  the  present 
Munro  would  be  hunting  down  the  Poligar  of  Nossam  or  some 
other  particular  recusant,  and  until  this  task  was  accomplished^ 
others  could  wait.  Frequently  a  passage  like  the  follow- 
ing occurs  in  Munro's  despatches  :  "  I  was  not  prepared  at  the 
time  to  enforce  my  demands,  and  I  therefore  took  no  notice  of 
his  conduct."  But  when  the  time  came  that  Munro  was  able 
to  enforce  his  demand,  the  rebel  poligar  was  hunted  from 
place  to  place.  If  he  took  refuge  with  a  chief  beyond  Munro's 
jurisdiction,  no  force  was  used.  Munro  would  quietly  look  on 
and  remark  to  the  Board  that,  since  for  each  protection  the 
poligar's  friendly  ally  would  squeeze  as  much  money  from  the 
fugitive  as  he  could,  the  poligar  would,  after  a  few  more  such 
visits,  be  left  without  any  more  resources,  and  as  none  of  his 
friends  would  think  of  protecting  him  when  he  had  no  more 
money,  he  would  then  be  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  troops 
who,  for  days  and  weeks,  had  been  following  and  waiting  for 
7 


50  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  II.  him  as  patiently  as  a  cat  for  a  mouse.  The  whole  of  the  first 
eighteen  months  of  Munro's  rule  was  taken  up  by  these  inci- 
dents. The  history  of  one  tells  us  of  all;  the  beginning  and 
the  end  are  always  the  same.  The  poligar  begins  by  refusing 
payment,  he  becomes  refractory  or  absconds,  and  he  ends  by 
being  captured,  his  estate  is  confiscated,  and  he  is  confined  in 
the  fort  of  Gooty.  The  following  despatch  of  Munro's  gives 
us  a  clear  indication  of  the  methods  he  adopted  in  dealing 
with  refractory  poligars :  "  The  poligar  of  Uppalur,  about  8o 
miles  to  the  west  of  Cuddapah,  disobeyed  the  summons  I  sent 
him  in  February  last  to  meet  me  in  order  to  settle  his  rents, 
and  he  also  refused  to  relinquish  two  sircar  villages  which  he 
had  obtained  on  rent  a  few  years  ago  from  one  of  the  Nizam's 
Amildars.  I  was  not  prepared  at  the  time  to  enforce  my 
demands,  so  I  took  no  notice  of  his  conduct  until  the  division 
under  Major-General  Campbell  encamped  in  this  neighbour- 
hood in  June,  when  I  directed  the  Amildar  (Tahsildar)  to 
take  possession  of  the  sircar  villages,  which  were  given  up 
without  opposition.  The  poligar  was  permitted  to  keep  his 
hereditary  village  of  Uppalur  on  the  idea  that  he  would  in 
future  show  more  obedience  to  the  civil  authority.  On  my 
arrival  here  on  the  20th  instant,  I  found  that  he  would  neither 
come  to  the  cutchery  himself  nor  allow  the  karnam  of  his 
village  to  bring  me  his  accounts.  All  the  poligars  of  Gurram- 
konda  had  come  in  with  their  accounts,  and  as  1  was  sensible 
that  their  example  being  followed  by  those  in  other  parts  of 
the  country  would  depend  in  a  great  measure  on  his  treatment, 
I  resolved  to  seize  him  without  delay.  As  he  had  only  20 
armed  followers,  the  Amildar's  peons  would  have  been  suffi- 
cient for  the  purpose,  but  as  there  was  a  chance  of  his  escaping 
and  collecting  more  followers,  and  committing  depredations 
before  he  could  be  taken,  I  requested  Colonel  St.  Leger,  com- 
manding at  Kamalapuram,  to  send  a  detachment  against  him- 
The  Colonel  in  consequence  marched  himself  last  night  with 
these  troops,  and  surprised  and  made  him  prisoner  without 
any  loss.  I  shall  keep  him  in  confinement  in  Gooty,  and 
allow  him  such  a  proportion  of  his  revenues  as  the  Right 
Honourable  the  Governor  in  Council  may  be  pleased  to  direct.'' 
At  the  end  of  1807  Munro  resigned  his  post  of  Principal  Col- 
lector and  proceeded  home  on  leave,  having  first  received  the 
following  handsome  acknowledgment  of  his  services  from  the 
Madras  Government : — 

"  From  disunited  hordes  of  lawless  plunderers  and  free-booters 
they  (the  people)  are  now  stated  to  be  as  far  advanced  in  civilization, 
submission  to  the  laws,  and  obedience  to  the  Magistrates,  as  any  of 


POLITICAL   HISTORY  5I 

the  subjects  under  this  Government.     'J'he  revenues  are  collected  with     CHAF.  II. 

facility  ;  every  one  seems  satisfied  with  his  situation,  and  the  regret  of  

the  people  is  universal  on  the  departure  of  the  Principal  Collector." 

The  following  extract  from  a  letter,  dated  6th  November 
1805,  is  significant  of  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the 
feelings  of  the  Court  of  Directors  : — "  The  reports  of  Colonel 
Munro  now  brought  under  our  observation  afford  new  proof  of 
his  knowledge  of  the  people  and  the  lands  under  his  adminis- 
tration, and  of  his  ability  and  skill  as  a  Collector.  We  see 
reason  to  be  surprised  at  the  industry  which  had  carried  the 
Collector  into  a  detail  of  no  less  than  206,819  individual  settle- 
ments of  this  nature  (ryotwar)  averaging  only  pagodas  65  each 
of  annual  rent." 

With  the  departure  of  Munro  and  the  assimilation  of  Cud-  <-' 'inclusion. 
dapah  district  to  the  more  orderly  parts  of  the  Madras 
Presidency  its  history  as  a  separate  political  unit  comes  to  an 
end.  No  event  of  any  political  significance  has  since  occurred 
within  its  limits,  if  we  exclude  the  rising  of  Narasimha  Reddi, 
a  descendant  of  a  dispossessed  poligar,  in  1846,  the  story  of 
which  would  more  properly  find  place  in  a  history  of  Kurnool 
district,  on  the  frontiers  of  which  his  former  jagir  lay. 
After  two  or  three  months'  lawless  marauding  with  a  band  of 
followers  numbering,  according  to  various  estimates,  from  400 
to  5,000,  he  was  captured  and  hanged  at  Koilkuntla  in  that 
district. 

An  account  of  the  revenue  administration  of  the  Cuddapah 
district,  more  particularly  from  the  time  of  Munro  to  the 
present  day,  will  be  found  in  another  chapter. 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAPTER  III, 
THE  PEOPLE. 


pop 


The  Census  -  Density  and    growth    of  the    population — Deficiency 
of       females — Language — Education — Occupations  —  Religions. 
The  Christians — -The  Roman  Catholic  Mission — The  London 
,  Mission — The    S.P.G.   Mission — The  Lutheran   Mission.      The 

MuSALMANS — Their  relations  with  Hindus.  The  Hindus — • 
Villages  —  Houses  — ■  Dress — Food — Amusements.  Religious 
Life — The  Village  Deities — Peculiar  religious  practices  and 
superstitions.  Social  Life— The  more  numerous  castes — 
Tribes — Beggars. 

CHAP.  in.    For  purposes    of  the   decennial    census  Cuddapah    district 

The  forms  part  of  the  Deccan  division  and  in  regard  to  its  popula- 

Census.      tion  exhibits  in  itself  all  the  more  striking  peculiarities  which 

are  characteristic  of  the  whole. 

Density  and  First  in  importance  is  the    sparseness  of  its    population.' 

population  ^  ^^s  mean  density  per  square  mile  is  only  a  little  more  than 
half  that  shown  for  the  whole  Presidency.  Conditions  of  life 
in  Cuddapah  district  are  in  fact  such  as  to  prevent  anything 
but  a  scanty  population  and  a  slow  rate  of  increase.  Less  than 
six  percent,  of  the  cultivated  area  is  grown  with  rice  and  the 
ryot,  whether  he  lives  on  the  cholam  that  he  raises  on  his  own 
land  or  buys  his  food  with  the  price  of  his  cotton,  requires 
a  greater  acreage  for  his  livelihood  than  the  southern  cultivator. 
The  climate  moreover  is  inclement  to  the  idle  or  physically 
weak,  and  the  position  of  the  district  in  the  heart  of  the  famine 
zone  occasionally  entails  violent  set-backs  to  what  may  be 
regarded  as  the  normal  rate  of  increase  in  the  population. 
Thus  in  the  ten  years  ending  with  1901  we  find  a  positive 
decrease  in  the  population  by  over  two  and  a  half  thousand, 
largely  attributable  to  the  famines  of  1892  and  1897.  The 
statistics  of  the  following  decade,  which  affords  no  instances 
of  similar  acute  distress,  furnish  a  truer  criterion  of  the  normal 
movement  of  population  in  the  district,  which  is  represented 
during  this  period  by  an  increase  of  I '6  per  cent. ;  though  it  is 

^  The  census  of  1911  gives  the  total  population  of  the  district  as  893,998. 


THE  PEOPLE  5  3 

difficult  to  conjecture  why    the  difference   in  v^ariation   in  the   CHAP.  HI. 
two  decades    should   be    so  marked  in    the  taluks   of  Badvel,         jhe 
Cuddapah  and  Sidhout.     A  cursory  examination  of  the  figures    Census- 

noted  in  the  margin   almost 

Percentage  of  variation-  ^        ^i      . 

suggests     that     an     appre- 

1S91  to    1901  to     ciable    proportion     of     the 

1901.        1911-      population  of  this  tract  finds 

Badvel  taluk  ...      -41       +73        it  difficult  to  decide  in  which 

Cuddapah  taluk      ...      +2-2       -1-4        ^^i^j^    ultimately     to   settle 

Sidhout  taluk  ...      +   19        -  5'5  ,  a  n     1  .  1    . 

down.     All  the  other  taluks 

of  the  district  show  an  increase  in  191 1  over  the  population  of 
1901,  the  variation  being  most  marked,  after  Badvel,  in  Kama- 
lapuram,  and  least  in  Rayachoti.  Emigration,  except  to  adjoin- 
ing districts,  is  rare,  and  is  practically  unknown  in  the  regada 
taluks,  where  the  ryot  will  scarcely  ever  be  found  to  live 
elsewhere  than  in  the  village  of  his  ancestors.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  naturally  no  appreciable  immigration  to  an 
inland  district  possessing  no  important  industrial  centre,  where 
agriculture  is  the  largely  predominant  occupation.  It  is  there- 
fore only  by  an  examination  of  vital  statistics  for  a  series  of 
unexceptional  years  that  we  can  arrive  at  any  definite  con- 
clusion regarding  the  normal  rate  of  increase  in  the  population. 
For  each  of  the  ten  years  from  1901  to  1910  the  birth-rate  of 
Cuddapah  district  was  lower  than  for  the  Presidency  as  a 
whole,  while  the  death-rate  for  the  whole  period  is  slightly 
higher. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  Deccan  division  and  of  each  Deficiency  of 
of  its  constituent  districts  is  that  the  males  outnumber  the  f^^i^'^'s- 
females.  The  fact  that  certain  other  districts  in  which  this 
peculiarity  was  also  found  to  occur  at  the  last  census  are  just 
those  districts  which  are  most  susceptible  to  famine  has  given 
rise  to  the  suggestion  that,  in  the  long  run,  the  sufferings 
entailed  by  a  famine  wear  out  more  women  than  men.  But 
it  is  to  be  noted  on  the  other  hand  that  during  the  ten  years 
ending  with  1900,  a  period  which  saw  two  famines,  there  was 
a  slight  increase  in  the  number  of  females  per  1,000  males 
over  the  figures  recorded  in  1891,  while  though  there  has  been 
no  famine  in  the  present  century,  the  number  of  females 
per  1,000  males  has  rather  markedly  decreased ;  and  it  is  in 
fact  generally  considered  that  women  are  less  susceptible 
than  men  to  the  effects  of  famine.  The  two  theories  are  not 
irreconcilable.  It  may  be  that  though  the  mortality  observed 
to  be  directly  due  to  famine  is  smaller  among  women  than 
men,  yet  the  male  survivors  have  greater  powers  of  recupera- 
tion.    The  subject  seems  to  deserve  further  investigation. 


54 


CUDiDAPAM 


CHAP.  Ill 

The 
Census. 

Language. 


Education 


Occupations. 


Religions. 


The  Chris- 
tians. 


Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  people  speak  Teliigu,  and  nine 
per  cent,  representing  practically  the  Musalman  population, 
speak  Hindustani.  Of  other  languages  Tamil,  Canarese  and 
Marathi  account  for  about  six  persons  per  thousand  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  district,  in  nearly  equal  proportions.  The 
higher  grade  of  railway  employees  throughout  the  district 
are  nearly  all  Tamilians,  as  are  many  Government  officials. 
It  is  curious  to  note  that  the  author  of  the  original  Manual  of 
this  district,  writing  in  1875,  states:  "The  number  of  the 
Tamil-speaking  population  is  yearly  increasing  "  and  "  it  is 
quite  possible  that  .  .  .  this  district  may  at  the  end  of 
the  century  be  a  Tamil-speaking  one."  There  is  in  fact  no 
indication  at  all  at  the  present  day  that  Tamil  is  in  any  degree 
whatever  displacing  Telugu  as  the  vernacular  of  the  natural 
population. 

The  education  of  the  people  is  dealt  with  more  particularly 
in  a  subsequent  chapter.  It  is  sufficient  to  note  here  that 
though  Cuddapah  district  is  included  for  statistical  purposes 
in  the  backward  Deccan  division,  it  compares  favourably  in 
point  of  education  with  two  districts  that  adjoin  it  outside  this 
division,  namely,  Nellore  and  Chittoor,  in  each  of  which  there 
are  fewer  literate  persons  per  mille  than  in  Cuddapah. 

Nearly  three-quarters  of  the  entire  population  depend  for 
their  livelihood  on  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits.  The 
subject  of  occupation  and  trade  is  separately  dealt  with 
elsewhere. 

Rather  more  than  six-sevenths  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Hindus.  As  in  other  districts  of  the  Deccan  the  proportion 
of  Musalmans  is  high.  They  constitute  in  Cuddapah  district 
more  than  II  per  cent,  of  the  total  population,  but  compara- 
tively few  of  them  obtain  their  livelihood  by  agriculture.  It 
follows  that  they  are  chiefly  settled  in  the  larger  villages  and 
towns  along  the  main  lines  of  communication.  The  Musalman 
element  is  most  noticeable  in  the  towns  and  villages  situated 
on  the  Kurnool-Chittoor  road  which  passes  through  the  taluks 
of  Proddatur,  Cuddapah  and  Rayachoti. 

The  Christians  of  Cuddapah  district  number  twenty-five 
in  every  thousand,  a  proportion  which  largely  exceeds  the 
average  for  the  Deccan  as  a  whole  and  is  only  surpassed  in 
three  other  Telugu  districts,  namely,  Guntur,  Kurnool  and 
Nellore.  The  vast  majority  belong  to  the  London  Mission 
which  has  mainly  confined  its  operations  in  this  district  to 
the  taluks  of  Jammalamadugu,  Pulivendla,  Kamalapuram  and 
Cuddapah.  A  branch  of  the  S.P.G.  Mission  numbers  more 
than  three  thousand  converts,  principally  in  the  Badvel  taluk. 


THE    PEOPLE  55 

The  remainder,  numerically  unimportant,  are  Roman  Catholics    CHAP.  HI. 
and  Lutherans.  The  Chris 

Of  these  missions  the  first  in  point  of  seniority  is  the  Roman        tians. 
Catholic.     The    origin  of  this  mission   in  the  district  as  now   -j-he  Roman 
constituted  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  l8th  century.    At  that   Catholic 
time,  when    the  political  influence  of  the  French  was  in  the   ^I'ssioa. 
ascendant,  some  French   Jesuits  from  Pondicherry   to  whom 
the  neighbouring  mission  of  the  Carnatic  had  been  entrusted 
extended   their  activities  to  this  part   of  the  country.     It  is 
recorded  in  the  diary  of  the  late  Bishop  Bonnand  who  visited 
these  missions  about  the  year  1830  that  by  the  middle   of  the 
l8th  century  there  had  been  a  Christian  settlement  at  Sidhout 
with  a  resident    missionary,  a  certain  French   Jesuit,  who  on 
account  of  his  great  skill  in  medicine  had  acquired  much  influ- 
ence at  the  Court  of  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah.     But  with  the 
suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  1773  their  society's  missions  came 
gradually  to  be  abandoned,  and  their  work  was  ultimately 
carried  on  by  missionaries  from  the  west  of  the  peninsula. 

It  was  the  Rev.  Joachim  D'Souza,  a  native  of  Goa,  called 
by  the  Telugu  Christians  Father  Adikanada,  who  succeeded 
in  founding  a  more  lasting  settlement  of  Christians  in  the 
Cuddapah  district.  This  was  at  Sathyapuram,  a  suburb  of 
the  present  Proddatur,  and  was  established  at  the_end  of  the 
iSth  or  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  Father  Adikanada 
had  before  this  founded  churches  at  Bellary  and  Adoni  in  the 
Bellary  district  and  at  Yaleru  in  the  Anantapur  district.  Some 
five  hundred  caste  Hindus  (reddis,  weavers  and  goldsmiths) 
were  converted  in  Cuddapah  district.  They  appear  to  have 
enjoyed  certain  privileges  from  the  Government  of  the  Nizam  ; 
but  in  1800,  when  the  country  was  ceded  to  the  British,  these 
privileges  were  withdrawn,  and  for  this  and  other  reasons  the 
community  broke  up  and  dispersed  into  different  localities. 
Many  of  them,_particularly  the  goldsmiths,  followed  their 
spiritual  father  Adikanada  to  Bangalore,  where  he  had  joined 
the  Fathers  of  the  Foreign  Missions  Society  of  Paris.  He 
subsequently  died  there  in  1829.  Others,  notably  the  weavers, 
went  and  settled  in  the  Rayachoti  taluk,  where  their  descend- 
ants live  to  this  day  in  the  village  of  Katimayakuntla. 
Again  some  others  of  the  same  caste  settled  in  the  Nellore 
and  Guntur  districts.  The  greater  number  of  cultivators 
went  from  Sathyapuram  northwards  and  eastwards  into  the 
Kurnool,  Nellore  and  Guntur  districts  where  they  became  the 
pioneers  of  later  Christian  communities. 

The  spiritual  care  of  these  scattered  Christians  remained 
with    the    missionaries     of    Pondicherry,    who     periodically 


56 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  III. 

The  Chris- 
tians. 


The  London 
Mission. 


visited  them  once  a  year  or  once  in  two  years,  until  in  1843 
the  Telugu  districts  were  handed  over  to  the  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Madras.  But  owing  to  a  scarcity  of  missionaries  for  the 
Telugu  missions  progress  has  hitherto  been  slow. 

In  the  town  of  Cuddapah  itself  there  are  only  a  few 
Roman  Catholics,  most  of  them  being  servants  of  officials  or 
railway  employees.  They  have  a  substantial  chapel.  Dur- 
ing the  time  that  Cuddapah  was  a  cantonment'  (1821-68) 
the  station  was  regularly  visited  from  Bellary,  and  the  late 
Rev.  Father  Patrick  Doyle  registered  about  200  baptisms 
during  his  visits. 

Fresh  conversions  have  taken  place  here  and  there  in  the 
Jammalamadugu  taluk,  but  the  greatest  number  of  new  con- 
verts are  found  at  Urutur,  a  village  in  the  newly  formed 
taluk  of  Kamalapuram.  In  this  village  through  the  heroic 
exertions  of  the  late  Monsignor  J.  Balanadar,  himself  a  native 
of  these  parts,  a  great  many  families  of  the  Reddi  caste  have 
become  Christians  and  have  built  for  themselves  a  handsome 
church. 

According  to  the  latest  returns  of  the  mission  there  are 
only  between  five  and  six  hundred  Roman  Catholics  in  the 
Cuddapah  district ;  but  what  the  late  Right  Rev.  Bishop 
Stephen  Fennelly  wrote  concerning  them  in  1875  remains 
true  :  "  They  are  for  the  most  part  Reddis  or  Kdpiivdndlu,  who 
live  by  cultivation.  They  renounced  paganism  and  caste  as 
far  as  its  observance  is  incompatible  with  the  honest  profes- 
sion and  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion,  retaining  those 
social  observances  of  caste  which  have  no  religious  signifi- 
cations. They  have  hitherto  lived  in  friendly  intercourse 
with  their  pagan  neighbours  and  relations,  who  associate 
with  them  on  terms  of  equality  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  and 
not  unfrequently  give  their  daughters  in  marriage  to  our 
Christians,  allowing  the  girls  to  be  instructed  and  baptized 
previous  to  their  marriage." 

The  activity  of  the  London  Mission  in  this  district  dates 
from  1822  when  the  Rev.  John  Hands,  whose  headquarters 
was  Bellary,  began  work  in  Cuddapah  town.  In  1824  he  was 
joined  by  Rev.  W.  Howell  who  was  the  first  missionary  to  be 
permanently  located  in  Cuddapah.  It  was  in  his  time,  about 
the  year  1840,  that  a  large  number  of  Malas  began  to  accept 
Christianity,  since  when,  and  notably  in  later  years,  remark- 
able progress  has  been  made  by  the  London  Mission  with 
this    community.     In   the   early   fifties   of   the    last    century 

'  The  number  of  Catholics  among  the  sepoys  is  said  to  have  been  considerable. 


THE  PEOPLE  57 

when  the  mission  was  in  charge   of  the  able  and  energetic  CHAP.  III. 
Rev.    Edward    Porter   further    considerable    advances    were         j^e 
made,  and  by  the  year    1875   there   were   80   outstations,  31    Christians. 
teachers,  some  1,400  converts  and  thrice  as  many  '  adherents,'  — 

and  27  boys'  schools  with  419  pupils.  But  in  the  great 
famine  of  1876-78  out  of  more  than  five  thousand  converts 
and  adherents  the  mission  lost  no  less  than  eleven  hundred 
and  fifty. 

Previous  to  1890  very  few  caste  people  joined  the  mission, 
but  in  that  year  a  large  number  became  Christians,  notably 
in  Pulivendla  taluk,  where  they  continue  to  increase  to  the 
present  day. 

In  1891  a  new  station  was  opened  in  Kadiri,  which  now 
belongs  to  Anantapur  district.  The  Rayachoti  taluk  is  in 
charge  of  the  Kadiri  missionary. 

In  1893  the  first  lady  missionaries  came  to  Cuddapah  and 
took  charge  of  the  Girls'  Day  and  Boarding  schools,  which 
were  transferred  to  Jammalamadugu  in  1899.  The  mission 
hospital  had  also  been  built  at  Jammalamadugu,  which  thus 
became  an  important  mission  station.^ 

"From  1890  to  1900,"  says  the  Rev.  G.  H.  Macfarlane,  the 
present  head  of  the  Mission  staff,  "  about  ten  thousand 
adherents  were  gathered  into  the  mission.  Since  then  the 
rate  of  progress  has  not  been  so  rapid,  but  a  great  internal 
advance  has  been  made  by  the  organization  of  the  Christian 
community  into  circle  churches  ...  A  third  station  in  the 
mission  was  opened  in  1903,  when  a  missionary  was  settled  at 
Kamalapuram  .  .  •  The  mission  now  (1914)  numbers  a 
Christian  community  of  18,500  people." 

The  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  has  a  mis-  The  S.P.G 
sion  station  at  Kalasapad.  The  Superintending  Missionary  ^^'^sioq. 
is  at  present  the  Rev.  Canon  Inman.  The  converts  of  this 
mission  are  distributed  over  some  fifty  villages  of  the  Badvel 
taluk.  The  mission  was  established  in  1861.  The  church  at 
Kalasapad  was  built  in  1887  and  dedicated  by  the  Bishop  of 
Madras  at  the  end  of  the  same  year.  About  ten  years  ago 
another  church  was  built  at  Palugurallapalle  and  deilicated 
by  the  present  Bishop  in  1904. 

The  headquarters  of  this  mission  in  Cuddapah  district  is  The 
Kodur    in  the  Pullampet  taluk.     The  present    missionary  in   J;j"J^o^" 
charge  is  the  Rev.  J.  N.   Wittmann.     About  eight  years  ago 
this  gentleman,  who  has  studied  medicine  in  Germany  and 
London,  established  a  Leper  Asylum  about  a  mile  and  a  half 

^  For  particulars  of  the  medical  and  educational  institutions  of  the  Protestant 
missions,  see  Chapters  IX  and  X. 
b 


58 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  III. 

The 
Christians. 


The 

MUSAL- 
MANS. 


Their 
relations 
with 
Hindus. 


from  Kodur,  which  is  known  as  Krupapalle.  It  has  between 
thirty  and  forty  inmates.  The  converts  attached  to  this 
mission  number  about  three  hundred.  The  mission  has 
looked  after  their  material  welfare  in  a  very  practical  way 
by  constructing  an  anient  across  the  Gunjana  river  for  the 
benefit  of  some  sixty  acres  of  land  belonging  to  them.  It  has 
also  made  experiments  in  the  plantation  of  leguminous  trees 
with  the  view  of  demonstrating  to  the  ryots  what  are  the  best 
green  manures. 

That  Musalmans  should  be  relatively  more  numerous  in 
the  Ceded  Districts  than  in  other  parts  of  the  Presidency  is 
only  what  the  political  history  of  the  country  would  lead  us 
to  expect.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  Kurnool  and  Cud- 
dapah.  But  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Pathan  Nawabs  by 
Haidar  Ali  at  the  end  of  the  l8th  century,  thousands  of  Musal- 
mans must  have  lost  their  employment.  Many  of  them  to  the 
present  day  are  in  very  needy  circumstances  and  occupy  a 
low  place  in  the  social  scale.  They  are  often  weavers,  but 
by  far  the  majority  are  engaged  in  trade.  Nearly  17  per  cent, 
of  them  are  Dudekulas,  who  follow  indiscriminately  both 
Musalman  and  Hindu  ways  and  customs.  These  speak 
Telugu  far  more  often  than  Hindustani  and  dress  like  Hindus 
rather  than  Muhammadans-  Though  they  attend  mosques 
and  submit  to  the  authority  of  the  kazi,  they  nevertheless 
consult  Brahmans  regarding  auspicious  days,  tie  talis  at  their 
weddings,  do  occasional  worship  at  Hindu  shrines  and  follow 
the  Hindu  law  of  inheritance.  Their  proper  occupation  is 
the  cleaning  of  cotton,  but  this  is  chiefly  done  in  factories 
nowadays,  so  that  many  of  them  have  taken  to  weaving  or 
agriculture.  Of  the  other  sects  Sheikhs  are  the  most  numerous, 
constituting  more  than  five-eighths  of  the  whole  Musalman 
population  of  the  district. 

Of  the  antagonism  which  must  have  existed  between 
Hindus  and  Musalmans  in  the  century  following  the  downfall 
of  the  Vijayanagar  Empire,  it  is  diflicult  to  find  any  trace  at 
the  present  day.  For  the  most  part  they  live  on  the  most 
amicable  terms.  Musalmans  often  dress  like  Hindus,  and  in 
many  villages  the  same  wells  are  used  by  both  communities. 
There  are  several  examples  in  the  district  of  their  mutually 
tolerant  attitude  in  the  matter  of  religion.  It  is  of  course  a 
common  practice  for  Hindus  to  assume  puliveshams  and  take  an 
active  part  in  the  Muharram.  What  is  more  strange  is  that 
in  parts  of  Badvel,  and  in  Yetur  village  of  Jammalamadugu 
taluk  certain  Musalmans  regard  the  Hindu  god  Narasimha- 
swami  with   peculiar  reverence.     They  worship   him  at  the 


THE  PEOPLE  59 

festival    of    sankarnnthi,    especially,    and     also    before    the  CHAP.  III. 

performance  of  a  marriage  as  their  family  god.     If  they  fail        The 

to  do  this,  they  apprehend  that  great  misfortune  will  overtake      Musal- 

them.     These  devotees  of  Narasimhaswami,  except  that  they        ^'ans. 

do  not  eat  beef,  follow  all  the  customs  of  other  Musalmans, 

with  whom  they  freely  mix.     Again,  in  the  village  of  Kondur 

in  Cuddapah  taluk  Hindus  hold  in  great  respect  the  mosque 

of  Masthan   Sahib,  which  was  constructed  by  the  villagers 

within  the  last  ten  years  in  honor  of  a  holy  Musalman  whose 

tomb    is   said  to    be    in    Kottacheruvu   of   Penukonda    taluk 

of   Anantapur   district.     His    sanctity   is    acknowledged    in 

many  villages  of  this  district,  and  in  Kondur  it  is  said  that 

Hindus  will,  out  of  gratitude  for  offspring  long  delayed,  take 

their  children  to  the  mosque  and  name  them  Masthan  Reddi 

or  Masthan  a  mm  a,  after  the  saint. 

The  Hindus  constitute  so  predominant  a  factor  in  the  popu-         The 
lation  of  the  district  that  any  account  of  their  characteristics         '^■Dus. 
is   for  all    practical  purposes    an   account  of  the   people    in 
general. 

Of  the  total  number  of  towns  and  villages  in  Cuddapah  Villages. 
district  more  than  five-eighths  consist  of  villages  containing 
less  than  a  thousand  inhabitants,  and  in  about  62  per  cent,  of 
these  the  population  is  below  five  hundred.  Though  the 
villages  within  each  natural  division  of  the  district  present 
practically  identical  features,  there  are  noticeable  differences 
between  the  village  of  the  black  cotton  country  and  that  of  the 
upland  taluk  of  Rayachoti,  while  the  villages  of  the  east  part 
of  the  district  are  in  some  respects  again  distinguishable  from 
either.  For  example,  in  the  north-west  taluks  the  villages  are 
almost  always  enclosed  by  ring  walls  which  generally  contain 
a  gateway,  and  houses  are  not  constructed  outside  this  rude 
fortification.  They  are  therefore  very  often  inconveniently 
crowded,  while  their  expansion  is  further  rendered  impossible 
by  the  fact  that  all  the  land  up  to  the  very  walls  has  long  ago 
been  appropriated  and  brought  under  cultivation.  In  the  south 
of  this  tract,  in  Pulivendla  taluk,  the  village  gradually  con- 
form more  closely  to  the  type  which  is  common  in  Rayachoti. 
This  is  pre-eminently  the  country  of  the  old  poligars.  Here 
the  ring  wall  disappears  and  we  find  a  ruined  fort  overlooking 
nearly  every  village,  where  the  poligar  used  to  dwell  with  his 
liliputian  court.  He  in  his  stronghold  was  responsible  for  the 
protection  of  his  villages,  themselves  unfortified,  whereas  in 
the  northern  taluks  where  poligars  were  scarce  it  devolved  on 
the  community  itself  to  make  the  villages  secure.  A  feature 
common  to  both  tracts  is  the  biiniz  or  stone-constructed  tower 


60  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  III.   situated  a  short  distance  Irom  the  village  site.     These  are  of  no 

The         great  size,  but  very  strongly  built.     They  evidently  served  the 

Hindus,      purpose  of  watch-towers  in  more  turbulent  times,  but  are  now 

all  ruined.    They   are  more  frequently    seen   on   the  plateau, 

where  it  is  said  they  were  also  utilized  for  storing  grain.  In  the 
eastern  taluks  of  the  district,  Badvcl,  Sidhout  and  Pullampet, 
there  are  no  fortified  villages  or  watch-towers,  while  such  forts 
as  are  found  owe  their  existence  to  a  period  anterior  to  the 
poligars.  During  the  l8th  century  while  the  rest  of  the  district 
was  exposed  to  the  alarm  and  danger  of  every  Mahratta  raid, 
not  to  mention  the  mutual  hostilities  of  the  local  poligars,  the 
part  of  the  country  east  of  the  Nallamalais  and  the  Sesha- 
chalams  was  generally  undisturbed  and  acknowledged,  through 
nearly  allits  length  and  breadth,  the  authority  of  the  Matli 
rajas  of  Chitvel,  who  ruled  the  country  under  the  nominal 
overlordship  of  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah. 

Houses.  In  the  construction  of  their  houses  the   ryots  of  the  black 

cotton  country  follow  a  type  different  from  that  adopted  in  the 
rest  of  the  district.  Where  the  well-known  Cuddapah  slabs  are 
available  these  are  used  for  building  up  the  walls,  which  are 
otherwise  constructed  of  stone  and  mud.  Where  the  walls  are 
built  of  stone  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  houses  in  this  part 
of  the  district  is  the  flat  roof.  Two  wooden  pillars  in  the  middle 
of  the  house  lend  support  to  the  rafters  on  which  stems  of  the 
cotton  plant  and  other  twigs  are  thrown  in  two  layers  cross- 
wise. Upon  this  foundation  is  deposited  about  a  foot  of  earth 
surmounted  by  a  few  inches  of  clay  or  tsoiidu  so  as  to  render 
the  roof  watertight.  This  construction  is  called  a  midde. 
Ventilation  is  obtained  by  openings  in  the  roof,  generally 
square,  which  are  covered  by  slabs  in  wet  weather.  When 
Cuddapah  slabs  are  not  used  the  middc,  properly  so  called,  will 
not  be  found  unless  some  other  stone  of  sufficient  strength  to 
bear  the  immense  weight  of  this  peculiar  flat  roof  is  available. 
Nearly  all  houses  are  provided  with  verandahs  throughout  the 
district,  but  from  the  verandah  one  descends  to  the  street  and 
not,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  the  Tamil  country,  to  an  outer 
verandah  or  pial.  There  are  no  courtyards  within  the  houses 
of  this  district,  and  in  the  black  cotton  country  backyards  are 
very  exiguous.  The  gad i,  or  place  where  the  cattle  are  kept  in 
the  house,  is  generally  on  the  right  hand  side  as  one  enters. 
Further  within,  on  the  same  side  as  the  cattle,  are  the  masonry 
geriselu  or  huge  hdi?,ke\.  gddelu,  in  which  grain  is  stored.  On 
the  opposite  side  of  the  house  will  be  the  living  rooms,  the 
cooking  place  and  the  devunbnida.  The  better  sort  of  house 
generally  has  a  carved  doorway,  with  the  figure  of  a  horse,  or 


THE  PEOPLE  6l 

occasionally  an  elephant,  at  the  top  of  each  post.     On  auspi-   CHAP.  III. 
cious  occasions  a  festoon  of  mango   leaves  is   hung  from  one         jhe 
to  the  other  across  the  entrance.     Verandah  pillars  are  also      Hindus. 

sometimes  carved.     With  these  exceptions,  the  houses  display  

no  ornamentation. 

Of  the  well-to-do  farmers  of  the  district,  the  Kapus  of  the  Dress, 
north-west  taluks  have  proved  the  most  conservative  in  the 
matter  of  dress.  Until  comparatively  recently,  their  costume 
comprised,  besides  the  voluminous  white  turban  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  black  cotton  tracts,  a  plain  unbleached 
upper  cloth  and  a  pair  of  drawers,  both  of  very  coarse  material. 
These  coarse  fabrics  are  woven  principally  by  the  Malas,  the 
yarn,  which  used  often  to  be  homespun,  being  supplied  for  the 
purpose.  But  there  has  been  a  noticeable  change  in  the  last 
fifteen  years.  The  cotton  drawers  or  tsallddaniiilii  are  now 
rarely  worn  except  by  GoUas,  and  the  locally  made  upper 
cloth  is  not  nearly  so  frequently  seen  as  before.  So  far  as  the 
men  are  concerned  Manchester  goods  are  steadily  gaining 
ground,  and  on  special  occasions  shirts  are  worn.  The 
change  is  much  less  marked  in  the  women's  dress.  Their 
clothes  are  for  the  most  part  still  made  of  the  coarse  country 
stuff,  with  a  black  or  red  border,  and  it  is  only  by  the  women- 
folk of  merchants  or  very  well-to-do  ryots  that  a  superior 
'  cotton  and  silk  '  material  is  used.  Very  little  yarn  is  home- 
spun by  the  ryots  nowadays,  the  Malas  being  supplied  with 
yarn  from  the  bazaar  as  occasion  arises.  In  other  parts  of  the 
district,  in  regard  to  male  attire,  there  is  little  worthy  of 
remark.  It  may  be  noted  that  tsallddamulu  are  also  occa- 
sionally worn  by  agriculturists  in  the  north  of  Badvel  taluk. 
Women  generally  wear  the  cotton  or  '  silk  and  cotton  '  cloths 
which  are  woven  in  the  district,  but  the  Brahmans  and  the 
richer  classes  follow  Madras  fashions.  The  tight-fitting 
bodice  or  ravika  is  very  generally  worn  with  certain  marked 
exceptions,  for  example,  it  is  never  worn  by  Oddes  nor  yet  by 
some  gotrams  among  the  Pakanati  Kapus,  and  except  in  the 
lower  castes  it  is  not  used  by  a  woman  after  she  becomes  a 
widow.  Certain  jewels  are  said  to  be  less  frequently  seen 
than  formerly ;  for  example,  the  bulaki  (nose  ornament), 
vadyanam  (waistbelt)  and  sandihandi  (elbow  ornament)  are  not 
in  general  use  nowadays.  In  all  matters  of  women's  dress  and 
jewellery  the  fashion  is  set  by  the  Brahman  ladies  of  Madras. 

Cholam  is  the  staple  food-grain  of  the  country  people  in    Kood. 
the  black  cotton  taluks  of  the   district,  where  the  principal 
meal  of  even  wealthy  Kapus  is  cholam  pudding  garnished 
with  chillies.     Korra  is  in  these  parts  much  less  favoured  than 


02 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  III.   formerly,   though    it    is  still    largely    consumed    in    parts    of 
The         Kamalapuram  and  in  Badvel  taluk,  where  the  other  principal 
Hindus.      food-grain  is  ragi.     This  latter  constitutes  the  usual  food  of 
■ —  the  ryots  of  Sidhout  and  Pullampet  taluks,  who  also  consume 

a  large  quantity  of  cumbu.  Cumbu  and  ragi  are  also  the 
principal  food-grains  of  Rayachoti  taluk.  Rice  is  only  eaten 
on  special  occasions.  The  Kapus  of  the  north-west  of  the  dis- 
trict call  it  deviini  boova  (bhojanam),  which  sufficiently  indicates 
the  rarity  of  its  use.  In  towns  and  large  villages  where  there 
is  a  non-agricultural  population  and  rice  is  sold  in  the  bazaars, 
it  is  eaten  by  most  classes  once  a  day,  at  the  evening  meal. 
Amusements.  Somc  of  the   children's    games  and  amusements    bear    a 

curious  similarity  to  those  prevalent  in  Europe.  The  game  of 
rriarbles  is  a  very  common  pastime  with  boys.  They  also  spin 
tops  and  fly  kites.  Tipcat  is  a  favourite  amusement,  but  played 
somewhat  differently  to  the  English  game.  The  absence  of 
breakable  windows  permits  a  degree  of  wildness  in  street 
games  which  would  not  be  tolerated  in  the  west.  The  bigger 
boys  play  a  sort  of  prisoners'  base  and  also  indulge  in  games 
of  ball  somewhat  resembling  rounders  and  cricket,  the  latter 
being  played  with  a  brick  for  a  wicket.  The  girls  enjoy  games 
of  a  quieter  sort.  They  play  with  dolls  much  like  the  children 
of  the  west ;  for  example,  dolis'  weddings  are  not  unfrequently 
celebrated.  Dancing  is  the  main  feature  of  their  more  active 
amusements.  Singing  and  dancing  with  clasped  hands,  jump- 
ing and  skipping  are  favourite  pastimes.  The  universally 
known  koldttam  is  danced  not  only  by  children  but  also  by 
grown-up  youths  who  are  sometimes  most  expert  in  its  per- 
formance, going  through  the  most  complicated  figures  with 
the  greatest  grace  and  precision. 

The  chief  recreations  of  adults   seem   to 
be   card-playing   and   cock-fighting.     They 
also  play  several  varieties  of  draughts.     One 
of  the   commonest   is    known  as  piilijiidam, 
which  is  played  with  stones  on  any  surface 
marked  out  with  a  diagram  like  that  shown 
in  the  margin. 
It  is  a  game  for  two  players.     One  takes  three  large  stones 
which  are  called  piilulu  or  tigers,  and  the  other  has  about  fifteen 
smaller   stones  called  mekalit,   goats.     The  stones  are  moved 
from  point  to  point  on  the  figure,  the  objects  of  the  game  being 
for  the  tigers  to  eat  up  the  goats  and  for  the  goats  to  hem  in  the 
tigers  so  that  they  cannot  move.     The  tigers  take  the  goats  by 
hopping  over  them,  as  in  draughts.     The  apex  of  the   triangle 
is  called  konda,  hill,  and  the  tiger  that  is  placed  there  never 


/I 

/ 

\ 

N 

/ 

\ 

"si 

/ 

\ 

I 

THE  PEOPLE  63 

leaves  his  post.     This  brief  description  of  the  game  shows  CHAP.  Ill 
that  it  corresponds    in   principle  and  part  of  the  play  to  the         -p^^g 
English  game  of  fox  and  geese.     The   principal    card   games      Hindus. 

appear  to  be  iruvai  okati,  which  is  almost  exactly  the  same  as  

vingt-et-un,  /nuntita  nalugu  (304),  which  is  a  kind  of  whist — 
the  trump  suit  being  declared  by  the  highest  bidder — and 
minap  which  corresponds  roughly  to  poker.  Gambling  at 
minap  is  said  to  be  generally  very  heavy,  though  it  is  of 
course  made  the  feature  of  all  adults'  games.  It  is  said  to  be 
exceptionally  prevalent  in  Pulivendla  taluk,  to  a  certain  vil- 
lage of  which  people  from  Anantapur  and  Kurnool  districts 
resort  for  the  purpose  of  high  play.  It  is  said  that  a  certain 
Guntakal  gentleman  who  visits  the  place  never  stakes  less 
than' a  thousand  rupees  on  a  single  throw,  the  corresponding 
amount  on  the  other  side  being  made  up  of  the  numerous 
petty  stakes  of  less  adventurous  players. 

The  villagers  occasionally  amuse  themselves  with  rude 
dramatic  performances  and  side  shows.  Bommaldtam,  a 
marionette  display,  is  very  common.  A  cotton  screen  is 
erected,  backed  by  lights,  and  dolls  made  of  oiled  paper  are 
held  up  on  sticks  and  moved  about,  while  the  action  is 
explained  or  commented  on  by  singers  behind  the  screen.  A 
favourite  play  in  the  black  cotton  country  is  ChoicluDidtakam 
which  relates  the  amours  of  the  god  Obalapati,  whose  temple 
is  in  the  Nallamalais,  with  a  Chenchu  girl.  The  story,  which 
is  unfit  for  publication,  was  introduced  into  these  parts  from 
Nellore  district  only  some  twenty  years  ago  ;  but  it  has  become 
so  popular  that,  as  I  was  informed,  "  any  child  can  tell  you 
what  it  is." 

The  wandering  Dommaras  also  travel  round  and  give 
gymnastic  and  acrobatic  displays. 

In  Cuddapah  district  the  followers  of  Vishnu  far  outnumber  Religious 
all  other  Hindu  sects.  The  Lingayats,  who  muster  so  strongly  Life. 
in  Bellary  district,  have  not  extended  their  influence  in  these 
parts  to  any  marked  degree,  though  they  are  represented  by 
the  Linga-Balijas  in  some  places,  notably  RayachOti,  where 
there  is  an  important  temple  of  Virabhadraswami.  Of  speci- 
ally sacred  places  within  the  district,  Pushpagiri,  some  ten 
miles  from  Cuddapah  town,  alone  deserves  mention  here. 
Some  account  of  it  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 
Tirupati  is  so  easily  accessible  and  offers  religious  opportuni- 
ties to  so  predominant  a  proportion  of  the  Hindu  population, 
that  the  temples  of  the  district  have  perhaps  suffered  by 
comparison.  But  in  any  case  the  real  religion  of  the  people 
throughout  the   district    finds  its  expression   not   so  much    in 


64 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  III. 

Religious 
Life. 


The  village 
deities. 


Peculiar 
religious 
practices  and 
superstitions. 


devotion  to  the  orthodox  Hindu  gods  as  in  the  worship  of 
the  tutelary  deities  of  the  viHage. 

The  tutelary  deity  of  a  village  is  always  a  goddess.  Her 
name  varies.  Over  the  greater  part  of  Cuddapah  district  she 
is  known  as  Gangamma.  Theoretically  she  is  one  of  several 
sisters,  of  whom  Poleramma  and  Ellamma  are  also  known 
and  worshipped  in  several  villages.  In  Anantapuram  village 
of  Rayachoti  taluk  Ellamma  is  worshipped  as  well  as 
Gangamma  at  the  great  annual  jdtra.  In  the  black  cotton 
tracts  the  village  goddess  is  almost  invariably  named  Ped- 
damma.  In  her  resides  pre-eminently  the  bJtu-sakti  which 
makes  the  earth  bring  forth  her  fruits  in  due  season,  just  as 
Gangamma  is  the  goddess  to  be  propitiated  to  ensure  an 
adequate  supply  of  water  in  the  tanks.  But  whatever  be  the 
goddess'  name  and  peculiar  attributes,  these  are  lost  sight  of 
in  the  general  worship  accorded  to  her  for  all  purposes,  and 
one  and  all  demand  the  same  bloody  sacrifices  and  the  same 
barbaric  rites  as  in  other  districts  of  the  Presidency.  The 
officiating  priest  at  the  annual  Peddamma  jdtra  is  either  a 
carpenter  or  a  potter  according  as  the  image  of  the  goddess  is 
made  of  wood  or  clay,  while  the  piijdri  in  a  Gangamma  y^^r<2 
generally  belongs  to  the  GoUa  (herdsman)  caste.  Particular 
care  is  taken  at  the  time  of  sacrifice  to  the  goddess  that  no  one 
should  pass  beyond  the  village  boundary,  as  it  is  held  that  if 
any  of  the  sacrificial  blood  is  carried  outside  the  limits  of  the 
village,  the  sacrifice  itself  is  rendered  nugatory.  It  is  said  that, 
to  prevent  such  a  catastrophe,  the  villagers  would  not  hesitate 
to  take  life.' 

As  every  evil  that  besets  mankind  is  thought  to  be  the 
work  of  some  malignant  sprite  it  follows  that,  besides  the  little 
temple  of  the  village  goddess,  other  shrines  are  found  in  every 
village.  These  are  of  very  rude  construction.  The  commonest 
type  consists  of  three  stones  set  up  on  a  low  platform  between 
two  trees.  The  middle  stone  is  a  big  one  and  has  a  little 
stone  on  each  side  of  it.  These  stones  are  daubed  with  red 
and  yellow  spots.  The  trees  are  often  a  margosa  and  ragi 
tree  which  have  been  "  married  "  with  due  ceremony.  Shrines 
of  this  sort  are  generally  found  near  the  village  site.  Another 
is  often  seen  on  the  tank-bunds,  and  generally  consists  of 
four  stone  slabs  about  a  yard  square  in  size.  Three  of  these 
are  set  up  on  end  like  the  walls  of  a  room,  and  the  fourth  is 
laid  on  top  as  a  roof.     The  "  walls  "  are  generally  painted  with 

^  The  subject  of  village  deities  may  be  further  pursued  in  Bishop  Caldwell's 
"  Demonolatry  in  Southern  India;  "  "  Census  of  India,  1891,  Madras  ;  "and  in 
Bishop  Whitehead's  "  Village  Deities  of  Southern  India." 


THE  PEOPLE  65 

red  and  white  stripes-     The  inmate  of  this  little  chamber   is  CHAP.  HI. 
the  usual  decorated   stone.     In  addition  to  these  one  often    religious 
notices  that  some  attention  has  been  paid  to  natural  peculiari-        Life. 
ties,  such  as  a  tree  twisted  into  a  weird  shape  or  a  rock  of  — 

unusual  appearance,  it  being  supposed  that  the  stranger  the 
appearance  of  a  natural  object  the  more  likely  is  it  to  harbour 
some  demon  who  has  to  be  propitiated.  The  earth  will  there- 
fore be  smoothed  and  levelled  round  the  foot  of  such  a  tree 
and  the  trunk  will  be  smeared  with  saffron  and  kunkiimam. 
Somewhat  different  is  the  practice  of  doing  puja  to  stones 
inscribed  with  antrams  consisting  of  weird  and  unintelligible 
combinations  of  letters  and  figures.  Such  a  stone  is  called 
saktibanda.  They  are  generally  shaped  like  large  tomb- 
stones, and  sometimes  bear  representations  of  snakes  or  of  a 
female  figure  above  the  inscription.  Some  of  them  are  very 
old,  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  is  not  always  the 
case.  In  the  village  of  Utukiir,  in  Cuddapah  taluk,  such  a 
stone  has  recently  been  erected  as  a  prophylactic  against 
cholera.  Its  surface  is  divided  into  sixteen  squares  in  each  of 
which  is  a  character  of  the  Telugu  alphabet  together  with  one 
or  more  unintelligible  symbols.  The  virtue  of  these  stones  no 
doubt  resides  in  the  antrams  which  are  considered  as  charms 
to  keep  off  epidemics.  The  value  of  charms  in  general  is  of 
course  universally  recognized.  In  parts  of  Badvel  taluk  it  is 
customary  to  tie  silver  "  arithmetical  "  charms  of  the  sort 
shown  in  the  margin  round  the  necks  of  children, 
with  the  idea  of  keeping  away  sickness.  In  some 
villages  of  Proddatur  taluk  it  is  usual,  when  an 
epidemic  has  made  its  appearance,  to  tie  two 
cocoanuts  and  a  small  bottle  of  arrack  or  toddy 
to  the  roof  of  the  house,  to  secure  immunity  for 
its  occupants. 

The  practice  of  hookswinging,^  in  its  modern  form,  is  very 
common  at  village  religious  festivals  in  many  parts  of  the 
district.  It  was  in  fulfilment  of  vow^s  to  the  village  goddess 
that  human  beings  used  to  submit  to  the  uncomfortable  process 
of  being  suspended  in  mid  air  by  iron  hooks  passed  through 
the  fleshy  part  of  the  back  and  swung  round  a  maypole. 
When  Government  forbade  this  inhuman  practice,  live  goats 
were  substituted,  the  animals  presumably  being  supplied  for 
the  purpose  by  the  human  devotees.  The  cruelty  of  swing- 
ing goats  is  however  recognized,  and  though  this  is  still  being 
done  it  is  more  common  to  use  a  wooden  dummy.     It    is   said 

^  A  description  of  this  ceremony  will  be  found  in  the  Madras  Museum  Bulletins, 
Vol.  V,  No.  I. 


6 

7 

2 

I 
5 
9 

8 
3 
4 

66 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.   Ill 

Religious 
Life. 


Social 
Life. 


The  more 
numerous 
castes. 


,  that  at  the  great  jatra  at  Anantapuram  village  human  beings 
are  actually  swung  to  the  present  day,  but  that  the  hooks  are 
attached  to  the  waist  cloth:  which  probably  occasions  the 
victim  no  more  inconvenience  than  would  a  merry-go-round 
at  an  English  fair. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  religion  and  religious  observ- 
ances brief  reference  may  be  made  to  the  practice  of  canoniza- 
tion. The  mosque  of  Masthan  Sahib  at  Kondur  has  already 
been  mentioned.  A  similar  case  is  to  be  seen  at  Lingaladinne 
in  Proddatur  taluk,  where  there  is  a  temple  of  "Brahaswami," 
a  Brahman  who  died  in  the  village  about  twenty-five  years  ago. 
He  attained  this  unusual  honour  partly  by  his  asceticism, 
but  chiefly  by  his  accurate  prognostication  of  future  events 
and  his  miraculous  power  of  being  in  several  places  at  the 
same  time.  Various  extravagant  things  are  said  of  him,  one 
of  which  is  that  he  gave  birth  to  a  son.  Upon  this  son  and 
his  descendants  devolve  the  duty  and  privilege  of  maintaining 
the  temple.  A  Brahman  pujari  is  employed  for  the  daily 
worship  of  this  strange  saint. 

There  are  no  important  social  communities  in  Cuddapah 
district  that  are  not  also  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Deccan. 
The  vast  majority  of  Telugu-speaking  Hindus  in  the  district 
are,  according  to  the  latest  census,  comprised  in  twenty-five 
castes. 

First  in  numerical  importance  are  the  Kapus,  who  are  the 
principal  landowners  of  the  Deccan.  They  constitute  nearly 
one-fourth  of  the  total  population  of  the  district,  and  consist 
of  many  sub-divisions.  Of  these  the  Peddakanti,  Motati, 
Kodide  and  Pakanati^  Kapus  are  chiefly  found  in  the  taluks 
of  Jammalamadugu,  Proddatur,  Pulivendla,  Cuddapah  and 
Kamalapuram ;  while  the  Velanadu  and  Yelama  Kapus,  the 
latter  of  whom  are  vegetarians,  seem  to  be  the  commonest 
sub-divisions  in  the  three  eastern  taluks  of  the  district.  In 
Rayachoti  taluk  the  caste  is  not  quite  so  common,  many 
cultivators  on  the  plateau  being  Balijas  and  Kammas.  The 
Kapus  are  good  steady  farmers,  true  sons  of  the  soil,  and 
very  conservative.  Having  no  interest  in  life  beyond  the 
welfare  of  their  crops,  their  natural  obstinacy  and  love  of 
contention  finds  an  outlet  in  forming  factions  and  fomenting 
the  bitterest  quarrels.  Though  there  are  factions  in  every 
village  of  the  district,  and  these  are  by  no  means  confined  to 
Kapus,  yet  in  the  black  cotton  country  where  this  caste 
largely  predominates  they  are  developed  to  a  very  high  degree 

^  In  some  places  called  Pokanati.     The  two    names  seem  to   denote  the  same 
sub-division ;  but  the  matter  is  not  free  from  doubt. 


THE  PEOPLE  67 

of  animosity  and  are   a   fruitful  source  of  crime,   as   they  not  CHAP.  III. 
infrequently   result    in    regular    blood    feuds.     The    highest       Social 
ambition  of  a  wealthy  Kapu  in  Jammalamadugu  taluk  is  to         Life. 
become  the  leader  of  a  powerful  faction.     Such  a  man   will  — 

not  leave  his  village  unaccompanied  by  a  body  of  armed 
retainers,  so  that  free  fights  occur  with  passable  regularity. 
In  this  part  of  the  district  it  is  a  curious  custom  of  the  Kapus, 
and  consequently  also  of  the  lower  castes  who  all  take  their 
cue  from  them,  to  bend  the  head  and  take  off  the  turban  with 
both  hands  as  a  mark  of  respect  when  presenting  a  petition  : 
which  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  very  similar  to  the  western 
practice  of  taking  off  the  hat.  It  has  however  been  suggested 
that  the  action  probably  signifies  the  sdshtdngamulu,  or  pros- 
tration of  eight  members,  in  the  performance  of  which  the 
turban  will  not  stay  on  the  head  and  so  is  removed  beforehand. 
Next  to  the  Kapus,  in  point  of  number,  come  the  Boyas, 
but  they  are  of  little  importance  as  a  distinct  social  element 
and  occupy  but  a  low  place  in  the  social  scale.  In  old  days 
their  proper  occupation  was  that  of  palanquin  bearers.  It 
is  also  said  that  the  poligars'  forces  and  Haidar  All's  famous 
troops  were  largely  recruited  from  these  people.  This  may 
account  in  part  for  the  tradition,  preserved  in  many  stories, 
that  they  are  blood-thirsty  and  cruel.  They  are  good  shikaris 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  great  hill  ranges  they  trade  in  forest 
produce  and  are  said  to  be  versed  in  forest  lore.  In  the  towns 
they  live  by  cooly.  Bali j as,  though  somewhat  fewer  in 
number  than  the  Boyas,  have  a  larger  stake  in  the  country. 
It  has  already  been  stated  that  in  Rayachoti  taluk  many  of 
them  are  landowners.  In  the  rest  of  the  district  they  are 
mainly  occupied  in  trade.  Many  of  them  are  Lingayats. 
Next  come  the  Gollas  who  slightly  outnumber  both  the  Malas 
and  the  Madigas.  The  Gollas  are  herdsmen,  and,  perhaps 
from  their  being  accustomed  to  handle  cattle,  the  pujaris  who 
perform  animal  sacrifices  are  generally  of  this  caste.  They 
are  also  largely  employed  as  agricultural  labourers.  The 
Malas  and  Madigas  are  the  lowest  in  the  social  scale,  and, 
like  the  Paraiyans  of  the  Tamil  country,  occupy  separate 
hamlets  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  village  community.  The 
Malas'  principal  occupation  is  weaving.  The  Madigas  are 
the  leather  workers  and  coolies  of  the  community.  In  the 
black  cotton  country  there  is  a  marked  antagonism  between 
these  two  classes,  of  which  the  longstanding  bitterness  is 
illustrated,  if  not  sufficiently  explained,  by  the  currency  of 
various  mythological  stories  which  present  either  Mala  or 
Madiga  in  a  very  discreditable  light.     For  example,  in  one  of 


68  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.   III.  these  stories  a  Mala    is  represented  as   having  fled  from  a 

Social       Madiga,  leaving  his  sword  and  turban  behind.     Their  enmity 

Life,         is   kept  alive   at  the  present  day  by  disputes  regarding  the 

division  of  the  flesh  of  dead  cattle.     The  rights  of  the  Malas 

and  Madigas  in  this  respect  are  immemorial,  the  Madigas 
taking  the  skin  and  one  share  of  the  flesh,  and  the  Malas 
taking  two  shares  of  the  flesh.  It  appears  that  in  some 
villages  the  owners  of  the  dead  beasts  claim  to  sell  the  skin, 
and  the  Madiga  to  make  up  for  his  loss  tries  to  appropriate 
part  of  the  Malas'  perquisites.  Strife  having  once  arisen,  the 
spark  is  speedily  fanned  into  a  flame  by  taunting  references 
to  the  old  stories,  and  the  great  opportunity  comes  at  the 
annual  Peddamma  festival,  when  the  Madigas  perform  the 
"  Chindhu  dance,"  wearing  red  turbans  and  carrying  swords 
when  feeling  runs  high,  in  reference  to  the  discreditable  story 
of  the  Mala  alluded  to  above  :  which  they  also  sing  as  they 
dance,  so  as  to  place  their  meaning  beyond  reasonable  doubt. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  on  occasions  of  "  Chindhu 
dancing  "  the  whole  village  joins  in  supporting  one  side  or 
the  other.  The  castes  who  encourage  the  Madigas  are, 
principally,  Kamsalas,  Kurubas  and  Boyas,  while  on  the  other 
hand  those  who  agree  with  the  Malas  in  objecting  to  the 
dance  are  the  potters,  barbers  and  washermen  as  well  as 
Balijas  and  certain  sub-divisions  of  the  Kapu  caste.  So,  if  the 
dance  ends  in  a  fight,  as  is  not  infrequently  the  case,  it 
involves  not  only  the  parties  immediately  concerned  but  the 
whole  village  :  and  the  Chindhu  becomes  a  '  shindy  '  of  the 
liveliest  description. 

Of  other  communities,  the  Komatis  are  the  principal 
traders  of  the  district.  The  trade  of  the  big  towns  is  chiefly 
in  their  hands.  The  weaving  castes,  excluding  the  Malas 
who  only  weave  coarse  cotton  stuffs,  are  represented  by 
the  Togatas,  Sales  and  Devangas  in  the  order  of  their 
numerical  importance.  Of  the  village  artisans  no  special 
mention  need  be  made.  The  only  notable  caste  occupied 
in  agriculture  outside  the  Kapus  and  Balijas,  is  that  of 
the  Kammas.  The  Oddes,  or  navvies,  are  fairly  numerous. 
The  toddy-drawers  are  Idigas.  The  Upparas  furnish  an 
interesting  example  of  a  caste  whose  occupation  is  gone. 
They  used  to  live  by  making  earth-salt.  When  the  manufac- 
ture of  salt  became  a  Government  fmonopoly,  the  Upparas 
took  to  agriculture,  and  this  is  their  usual  occupation 
nowadays. 

In  the  latest  census  report  all  the  wandering  tribes  known 
to  Cuddapah  district  are  returned  partly  as  Hindus  and  partly 


Tribes. 


THE  PEOPLE  69 

as  Animists.  The  former  predominate.  The  most  important  CHAP.  III. 
of  these  tribes,  in  point  of  numbers,  are  the  Yanadis,  Yeru-  Social 
kulas,  Lambadis  and  Chenchus.  The  Yanadis  reside  princi-  Life. 
pally  in  Nellore  district,  and  have  overlapped  into  the  east  of 
Cuddapah.  There  are  now  less  than  two  thousand  in  this 
district.  At  SrTharikota  on  the  east  coast,  which  is  their 
original  settlement,  they  are  said  still  to  be  very  backward. 
But  elsewhere  they  are  becoming  more  civilized  and  some 
have  given  up  their  wandering  habits  and  are  found  perma- 
nently domiciled  in  towns  and  villages.^  The  Chenchus  are 
often  regarded  as  a  sub-division  of  the  Yanadis,  but  they  hold 
themselves  distinct,  and  claim  consanguinity  with  Narasimha 
of  Ahobilam  in  Kurnool  district,  who,  so  they  say,  married  a 
Chenchu  maid,  and  gave  them  the  whole  of  the  Nallamalais. 
They  are  probably  as  distinct  from  the  Yanadis  as,  for 
example,  are  the  Malas  from  the  Madigas.  Between  the 
Chenchu  and  the  Yanadi  there  is  no  love  lost.  They  may 
be  seen  living  close  together  on  the  Nallamalai  hills,  but  they 
do  not  intermingle,  and  their  social  habits  differ.  To  quote 
an  instance,  the  degree  of  importance  attached  to  the  marriage 
tie  differs  very  considerably  in  the  two  tribes,  for  while  the 
Chenchu  wife  is  renowned  for  her  fidelity  the  Yanadi  marriage 
is  at  best  but  a  loose  bond  and  readily  dissolved. 

The  Yerukulas  appear  to  be  more  addicted  to  a  life  of 
crime  than  either  of  the  tribes  already  mentioned.  They  are 
more  frequently  met  with  on  the  plateau  than  in  other  parts 
of  the  district.  They  occasionally  settle  down,  and  there  is  a 
community  of  them  at  Mailavaram  in  Jammalamadugu  taluk, 
where  they  are  known  by  two  names  according  to  their 
occupations.  Those  who  live  by  selling  baskets,  tatties  and 
the  like  are  known  as  Dabbala  Yerukulas,  and  others,  who 
make  '  sizing-brushes  '  (kiincliiilii)  for  weavers  are  known  as 
Kunchugattu  Yerukulas,  and  generally  travel  round  with 
monkeys.  The  women  tell  fortunes  from  house  to  house  and 
take  notice  of  their  construction  and  other  details  with  a  view 
to  informing  their  menfolk  of  likely  'cribs  to  crack.'  When 
a  woman  of  this  tribe  marries  again,  the  relatives  of  her 
first  husband  have  to  be  indemnified  for  the  expenses 
of  the  previous  marriage.  No  woman  is  allowed  to  marry 
more  than  seven  times,  though  if  she  accomplishes  this 
remarkable  record  she  is  regarded  with  considerable  respect. 
Their  tutelary  deity  is  said  to  be  named  Yerukula  Nan- 
charamma. 

*  Au  unusally  full  account  of  ihe  Vanadi  tribe  will  be  found  in  the  Madras 
Museum  Bulletins,  \'ol.  IV,  Xo.  2. 


fO  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  III.  The  Lambadis,  who  are  generally  known  as  Sugalis  in  the 
Social  Telugu  country,  are  commoner  in  Rayachoti  taluk  than  the 
Life.  rest  of  the  district.  They  live  chiefly  by  collecting  firewood 
and  other  forest  produce  which  they  sell  in  towns  and  vil- 
lages. Formerly,  it  appears,  they  did  considerable  business 
in  the  transport  of  merchandise  by  means  of  pack-bullocks. 
With  the  opening  up  of  communications  they  naturally  lost 
this  trade,  and  some  of  them  have  taken  to  agriculture  or  live 
by  cooly.  There  are  several  Sugali  hamlets  to  be  found  in 
Rayachoti  taluk.  The  women  of  this  tribe,  by  their  dress  and 
appearance,  are  quite  unmistakable.  They  wear  patch-work 
petticoats  and  tight-fitting  bodices  of  the  same  material,  with 
several  rows  of  bead  necklaces,  while  their  arms  are  covered 
with  bracelets  up  to  the  elbow.  In  appearance  they  are  not 
very  dark,  and  this  fact,  together  with  the  regularity  of  their 
features  and  the  brightness  of  their  costume,  reminds  one 
vividly  of  the  Romany  gypsies  of  Europe,  with  whom  indeed 
they  may  be  allied,  if  the  prevalence  of  Indian  words  in  the 
language  of  the  Romanies  is  the  key  to  their  true  origin. 

A  curious  custom,  which  is  nevertheless  extremely  wide- 
spread and  is  known  to  exist  in  countries  so  far  apart  as 
Greenland  and  Borneo,  obtains  among  both  the  Yerukulas 
and  the  Sugalis.  It  is  technically  known  as  the  couvade 
(hatching)  and  is  thus  described  in  Brett's  'Indian  Tribes 
of  Guiana.'  "  On  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  ancient  Indian 
etiquette  requires  the  father  to  take  to  his  hammock,  where  he 
remains  some  days  as  if  he  were  sick,  and  receives  the  con- 
gratulations and  condolences  of  his  friends.  An  instance  of 
this  custom  came  under  my  own  observation,  where  the  man 
in  robust  health  and  excellent  condition,  without  a  single 
bodily  ailment,  was  lying  in  his  hammock  in  the  most 
*  provoking  manner,  and  carefully  and  respectfully   tended  by 

the  women,  while  the  mother  of  the  new-born  infant  was 
cooking,  none  apparently  regarding  her."  With  the  Yeru 
kulas  and  Sugalis,  similarly,  the  father  of  a  new-born  child 
will  take  to  his  bed  for  fifteen  days  and  observe  a  very  strict 
diet,  being  constantly  attended  by  the  women  of  the  house  as 
if  he  were  sick.  On  the  sixteenth  day  he  undergoes  a  cere- 
mony of  purification  and  gives  a  feast  to  his  relatives. 
During  all  this  time  the  mother  pursues  her  usual  avocations, 
and  no  particular  attention  is  paid  to  her.^ 

The  district  is  not  remarkable  for  the  frequency  of  beggar 
castes,  the  only  one  of  any  numerical  importance  being  that 

^   For  a  fuller  acconnt  of  the  convada  custom   the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
Madras  Musetim  Bulletins,  Vol,  IV,  No.  2. 


THE  PEOPLE 


71 


of  the  religious  mendicants  known  as  Dasaris.^  This  commu- 
nity is  recruited  from  several  castes,  such  as  the  Kapus, 
Balijas,  Kurubas,  Boyas  and  Malas,  and  members  of  it  who 
belong  to  the  two  last  of  these,  being  low  in  the  social  scale, 
do  not  intermingle  with  the  others.  All  Dasaris  are  Vaishna- 
vites  and  admission  to  the  community  is  obtained  by  be- 
ing branded  by  some  Vaishnavite  guru.  Thenceforward  the 
novice  becomes  a  Dasari  and  lives  by  begging  from  door  to 
door.  The  profession  is  almost  hereditary  in  some  families. 
The  five  insignia  of  a  Dasari  are  the  conch-shell  which  he 
blows  to  announce  his  arrival ;  the  gong  he  strikes  as  he  goes 
his  rounds  ;  the  tall  iron  lamp  he  keeps  lighted  as  he  begs  ;  the 
brass  or  copper  vessel  in  which  he  places  the  alms  received; 
and  the  small  metal  image  of  Hanuman  which  he  hangs 
round  his  neck.  Of  these  the  iron  lamp  is  at  once  the  most 
conspicuous  and  the  most  indispensable.  It  is  said  to  repre- 
sent Venkatesa,  and  it  must  be  kept  burning,  as  an  unlighted 
lamp  is  held  to  be  inauspicious.  It  is  also  an  important 
function  of  the  Dasaris  to  officiate  at  certain  ceremonies  of 
the  Malas  and  other  low  caste  communities. 

Of  other  beggars  mention  may  be  made  of  the  Bhatrazus 
and  Budubudukulas.  The  Bhatrazus  carry  a  little  book  but 
use  no  musical  instrument  of  any  kind.  Their  practice  is  to 
extol  the  virtues  of  the  principal  villagers  in  extempore  verse, 
and  the  longer  alms  are  withheld  the  more  persistent  and 
extravagant  grow  their  praises,  till  the  object  of  them  in  very 
shame  is  compelled  to  bestow  upon  them  gifts  of  grain  or 
money.  Many  of  the  teachers  in  the  'pial'  schools  of  the 
district  are  recruited  from  this  community.  The  Budubudu- 
kulas, so  named  from  the  tomtoming  of  the  little  drum  they 
carry  to  announce  their  presence,  are  a  lower  class  of  people 
altogether,  possibly  a  sect  of  Malas  originally.  They  obtain 
alms  by  prophesying  good  fortune  to  the  people,  as  they  travel 
from  village  to  village,  and  will  accept  presents  of  any  sort, 
such  as  old  clothes  and  lumber,  for  which  the  owners  have  no 
further  use. 

The  description  of  the  Dasaris  is  taken  almost  verbatim  from  the  Ananta- 
pur  District  Gazetteer. 


CHAP.  HI- 

Social 
Life. 

Beggars, 


72 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAPTER  IV 
AGRICULTURE   AND   IRRIGATION 


CHAP.  IV. 

Introduc- 
tory. 


Introductory.  Wet  Cultivation — Paddy — ^Ragi — Sugarcane — 
Garden  crops.  Dry  Cultivation — The  guntaka  or  scuffle — The 
gorru  or  drill — Weeding — Practices  pecuHar  to  the  '  black  cotton  ' 
country — The  pedda  madaka  or  big  plough — Harvesting — Cattle 
food — Modern  changes.  Irrigation — General — River  channels 
— Tanks — Wells.  Irrigation  Works — The  Kurnool-Cudda- 
pah  Canal — The  Chapad  and  Maidukiiru  Projects — The 
Sagiler  Project.  Economic  Condition  of  Agriculturists — 
Indebtedness  of  the  ryot. 

In  dealing  with  the  physical  description  of  the  district  I 
have  already  had  occasion  to  note  its  w^ant  of  uniformity  and 
for  purposes  of  convenience  to  regard  the  whole  as  falling  into 
three  natural  divisions.  From  its  diversity  in  general  confi- 
guration, soils,  and  even  climate,  it  inevitably  follows  that 
agricultural  practice  also  varies.  In  Jammalamadugu  taluk 
which  is  characterized  by  flat  stretches  of  black  cotton  soil 
more  than  75  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area  is  grown  with 
cholam  and  cotton,  and  the  cultivation  of  wet  crops  is  almost 
negligible,  for  the  configuration  of  the  country  is  unfavour- 
able to  the  construction  of  tanks,  while  owing  to  the  absence  of 
a  porous  sub-soil  and  even  of  adequate  surface  drainage  the 
land  would  be  ruined  by  persistent  irrigation.  Eastwards 
these  conditions  gradually  disappear,  and  in  east  Proddatur, 
Cuddapah  and  Kamalapuram  taluks  where  the  soils  are  pre- 
dominantly loamy  the  cultivation  of  paddy  is  much  more 
extensive,  cholam  is  largely  replaced  by  korra  and  ragi,  and 
cotton  to  some  extent  by  indigo.  The  change  becomes 
complete  in  the  eastern  division  of  the  district  where,  in 
Pullampet  taluk,  paddy  is  more  extensively  grown  than  any 
other  crop,  cotton  is  not  found  and  cholam  and  korra  cover 
less  than  one-third  of  the  area  cultivated  with  ragi  and  cumbu. 
Finally,  the  upland  taluk  of  Rayachoti  is  marked  by  features 
that  do  not  chara':-teri7e  any  other  portion  of  the  district.  It 
contains  very  few  irrigation  sources  that  are  not  precarious 
though  it  is  seamed  throughout  by  chains  of  little  kuntas 
with  ayacuts  of  insignificant  extent.  Without  the  aid  of 
supplemental  well  irrigation  these   sources  are  inadequate  to 


AGRICULTURE  A\'D  IRRIGATION  73 

secure  the  raising  of  a  paddy  crop,  except   in    years  of  good     CHAP.  IV. 

rainfall,  so  that  dry  crops  such  as  ragi  and  cholam   are  often    Jntroduc-* 

grown  on  wet   lands.     The  red  soil  in  this  taluk  is  the  poorest         tory. 

in  the  district  and  the  cereal  most  commonly  grown  is  cumbu  

which  represents  more  than  50  percent,  of 'the  total  cultivated 

area  of  the  taluk. 

In   this  district,  as  elsewhere,   paddy    occupies  the  most         Wet 

prominent  place  among  the  crops  grown  on  irrigated  lands.     Cultiva- 
Formerly,   when  indigo  was  more  extensively  cultivated  this         tion. 
crop  was  used  in  rotation  with   paddy  over  large  areas  much   ^'^^^y- 
in  the  same  way  as  cotton  with  cholam  in  the  black  cotton 
country.     This  practice,  which  consists  in  putting  down  indigo 
once  in  three  years  on  wet  lands  and  growing  paddy  in  the 
other  two,   is   still  followed    in    the  Cuddapah   and   Sidhout 
taluks,    where    indigo    continues   to   occupy  an    appreciable 
percentage  of  the  cultivated  area.     Indigo  refuse   from  the 
vats   is  a   very  good  manure  fot  paddy  and  the  continued 
growth  of  this  crop — mostly  on  v/et  lands  nowadays — must  be 
attributed  to  its  restorative  value  as  much  as  to  any  profit 
that  accrues  to  the  growers  from  the  declining  trade  in  the 
dye.     In  the  case  of  paddy  the  system  of  cultivation  is  very 
similar  to   that  pursued    in   other   parts   of   the    Presidency. 
Formerly   the   practice   of    sowing   the  seed    broadcast  was 
almost   universal   throughout   the    district.     Being  a   method 
that  results  in  a  great  waste  of  seed  as  well  as  an  uneven  crop 
it    is   surprising  that  farmers,  whose   ingenuity   evolved  the 
seed-drill  to  avoid  these  very  evils  in  the  case  of  dry  crops, 
should  be  so  slow  to  abandon  it.     It  is  the  prevailing  system 
to  the  present  day,  though  that  of  transplanting  the  seedlings 
has  gained  ground  in  late  years  and  is  exclusivelv  followed 
in  some  parts  as,  for  example,  under  the  Kurnool-Cuddapah 
Canal.     In    RayachOti    and   parts  of    Pullampet  taluk  trans- 
planting is  for  some  reason  only  the  rule  for  the  Vaisdkliam  or 
later  crop.     If  the  tanks  fill  during  the  south-west  monsoon 
and  make  paddy  cultivation   possible  earlier  in  the  season, 
the  grain  is  sown  broadcast.     In  other  parts  of  the  district 
both  systems  prevail,  except  in  Kamalapuram  and  Pulivendla 
taluks  where   broadcast   sowing   appears    to   be   exclusively 
practised.     The    saving    of    time    under    the    transplanting 
system  is  an  important  consideration,  for  it  may  often  happen 
that  the  last  two  weeks  in  the  life  of  the  crop  determine  its 
success  or  failure,  so  that  the  longer  the  cultivation  season  the 
greater  the  risk. 

Besides  ordinary  cattle  manure,  leaf  manure  is  extensively 
used,   of   which    some   five   to  ten    cart-loads  constitute  the 
10 


74 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  IV. 

Wet 

Cultiva- 
tion. 


Ragi. 


Sugarcane. 


usual  application  for  an  acre.  In  Rfiyachoti  taluk  the  leaf 
invariably  used  is  that  of  the  hlnuga  tree  (Pongamia  glabra). 
Where  neither  this  tree  nor  indigo  waste  is  available,  the 
ryots  have  generally  to  obtain  their  green  manure  from  the 
forests.  The  manure  is  applied  to  the  land  after  the  soil  has 
been  reduced  to  a  state  of  liquid  mud-puddle,  and  the  seed  js 
sovi^n  broadcast  immediately.  After  the  seed  is  sow^n  the 
fields  are  generally  allow^ed  to  dry  until  the  sprouts  are  about 
two  inches  high,  and  from  that  time  till  harvest  it  is 
considered  necessary  to  keep  two  or  three  inches  of  water  on 
the  land.  As  the  cultivators  also  like  to  keep  the  water  in 
their  fields  constantly  moving,  the  amount  used  is  thus  far 
in  excess  of  the  quantity  actually  required,  but  this  waste  is 
so  general  throughout  the  country  that  it  demands  no  special 
notice  in  regard  to  Cuddapah  district. 

The  uneven  crop  which  results  from  broadcasting  is 
usually  remedied  by  crossing  it  with  a  rake  when  about  six 
inches  high  and  removing  the  seedlings  from  the  thicker  to 
the  thinner  patches. 

Paddy  has  two  main  seasons  known  as  Kdrtikam  and 
Vaisakham,  these  being  the  months  in  which  the  harvest 
is  gathered.  The  most  popular  variety  is  safinavadlu,  and 
unless  the  soil  is  of  inferior  quality  no  other  sort  is  grown  on 
single-cropped  land  ;  but  as  it  takes  nearly  five  months  to 
mature,  some  other  variety  immediately  precedes  or  follows 
it  where  irrigation  facilities  render  possible  the  cultivation  of 
two  paddy  crops  in  a  single  year.  Of  such  other  varieties 
the  principal  is  the  chennangi,  while  tokavadlii,  lavtivadlu  and 
nallavadlii  are  also  grown  on  inferior  soils. 

Ragi  is  either  grown  as  a  second  crop  on  irrigated  lands 
which  possess  a  good  water-supply  or  as  a  substitute  for 
paddy  when  the  supply  is  insufficient  for  a  wet  crop.  The 
crop  is  transplanted  from  seed-beds,  the  land  being  ploughed 
up  when  moistened  by  the  rain  and  then  manured.  The 
depth  of  tilled  soil  does  not  exceed  three  inches.  After  the 
manure  has  been  applied,  it  is  not  infrequently  left  for  a  few 
days  before  the  water  is  let  in,  which  is  done  immediately 
before  planting  out  the  seedlings.  During  its  growth  the 
crop  is  said  to  require  watering  about  once  in  from  seven  to 
ten  days,  and  to  be  weeded  once. 

The  sugarcane  grown  in  the  old  sub-division  of  the 
district,  now  represented  only  by  the  taluk  of  Rayachoti,  is 
exceptionally  good  and  the  jaggery  manufactured  therefrom 
is  widely  known.  This  crop  occupies  the  land  for  about  a 
year.     Considerable  care  is  exercised   in  the  preparation  of 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  75 

the  soil   for  it,   and  large  quantities  of  manure  are  applied.    CHAP.  IV, 
The  land  is  ridged  and  the  cuttings  planted,  being  laid  flat        Wet 
in  lines  about  eighteen  inches  apart,  four  or  five  joints  being     Cultiva- 

allowed  to  each  cutting.     During  the  growth  of  the  crop  it  is         ' 

watered  between  every  second  row,  so  that  a  high  ridge  and 
a  water  furrow  are  formed.  Water  is  applied  about  once  in 
four  or  five  days.  To  prevent  the  attacks  of  jackals  several 
stems  in  each  plant  are  tied  up  together  with  leaves  of 
the  cane. 

Highly  irrigated  areas  are  sprinkled  with  the  usual  Ganiea 
"  garden  "  crops,  such  as  the  plantain  and  betel-vine.  One  '^'^^  ' 
that  deserves  particular  mention  is  turmeric,  from  which 
saffron  powder  is  extracted.  It  is  grown  in  small  patches  on 
fertile  soils  under  the  better  irrigation  sources.  As  it  requires 
constant  though  not  excessive  irrigation  and  withers  very 
rapidly  if  deprived  of  water,  it  is  not  often  found  on  lands 
unprotected  by  wells.  Large  areas  are  grown  with  this  plant 
in  the  taluks  of  Pullampet  and  Cuddapah  as  well  as  under 
the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal.  There  are  saffron  w^orks  at 
Cuddapah  where  the  powder  is  extracted  from  the  turmeric  by 
power-driven  machinery. 

"Cuddapah  melons,"  which  are  exported  to  all  parts  of 
India,  are  cultivated  in  the  sandy  bed  of  the  Penner  river, 
mainly  at  Sidhout.  The  fruit  is  raised  either  from  seeds 
planted  in  pits  dug  in  the  sand,  or  from  transplanted  seed- 
lings. As  soon  as  the  river  dries  up  after  the  cold  weather 
rains  the  cultivation  of  melons  is  begun.  The  only  expense 
involved  in  their  cultivation — which  is  very  remunerative — is 
the  heavy  manuring  required.  The  plants  trail  over  the  sand 
like  creepers  and  are  so  prolific  that  thousands  of  melons  can 
be  produced  on  a  single  acre. 

With  the  first  showers  that  herald  the  approach  of  the   Dry  Culti- 
south-west  monsoon  the  ryot  begins  to  prepare  his  dry  fields      '^'ation. 
for   cultivation.     When    the    surface    is    sufficiently    soft    to  nr  scuffle, 
commence  operations,  the  stubble  of  the  last  crop  is  rooted 
up,  and    this   is  usually  done   by  means  of   the  giintaka,   or 
scuffle,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  Telugu  country.     It  consists 
of  a  beam  about  four  feet  long  to  which  the  draught  pole  is 
attached,  as  also  an  iron  blade,  which  is  fixed  by  two  wooden 
holders  to  each  end  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  forced  into  the 
soil  when  the  implement  is  drawn  along.     The  driver  often 
stands  on  the  beam  so  as  to  ensure  that  the  blade  sinks  to  an 
adequate  depth.     The  surface  of  the  soil  being  thus  prepared, 
the  land  is  ready  for  the  plough  as  soon  as  sufficient  rain  has 
fallen.     If  the  monsoon    is  seasonable,  ploughing  operations 


76 


CUDDAPAH 


VATION. 


The 
drill. 


CHAP.  IV.  will  be  in  full  swing  before  the  end  of  June.  Manuring, 
Dry  Culti-  which  is  the  next  process,  is  often  accomplished  by  the  simple 
means  of  penning  sheep  and  goats  on  the  land.  Otherwise 
manure  is  only  applied  to  dry  lands  when  the  ryot  has  enough 
and  to  spare  for  his  irrigated  and  garden  lands,  and  then  not 
in  large  quantities,  ten  cart-loads  being  considered  a  fair 
dressing  for  an  acre.  If  manure  is  applied  to  the  land,  the 
guntaka  is  again  used  to  work  it  in  and  break  up  the  clods. 
Then,  after  more  rain,  the  seed  is  sown. 

The  use  of  the  seed-drill,  or  gorrii,  for  the  sowing  of  dry 
crops  is  universal  in  the  Ceded  Districts.  This  implement  has 
from  three  to  six  teeth.  In  the  black  cotton  country  six  is  the 
usual  number.  In  other  parts  of  the  district  the  number  of 
lines  sown  by  the  drill  is  generally  five  or  three.  The  teeth 
are  of  iron,  strengthened  by  a  wooden  backing,  and  are 
hollow.  Connected  with  each  of  them  is  a  hollow  bamboo  and 
the  upper  ends  of  these  are  brought  together  and  fixed  into  a 
hopper  called  the  zadigam.  The  seed  is  dropped  into  the 
hopper,  passes  down  the  bamboo  tubes  through  the  hollows  in 
the  teeth,  and  so  into  the  miniature  furrows  which  the  teeth 
make  as  the  instrument  is  dragged  over  the  field  by  the  pair 
of  bullocks  yoked  to  it.  The  seed  being  thus  sown,  the 
guntaka  is  again  lightly  used  to  cover  it.  The  chief  advan- 
tages of  the  seed-drill  are  that  it  economises  seed,  provided 
the  machine  is  carefully  fed,  sows  it  evenly  and  at  a  uniform 
depth  and  is  very  well  suited  for  the  sowing  of  mixed  crops. 
The  commonest  form  of  mixing  is  to  sow  two  rows  of  some 
low-growing  crop  such  as  ragi  or  korra  and  then  one  row  of  a 
taller  and  wider  spreading  plant,  such  as  dhall  or  cotton. 
This  is  effected  by  stopping  up  one  of  the  holes  in  the 
hopper  and  attaching  by  a  string,  a  foot  or  two  behind  the 
gorrii,  a  separate  seed-tube  consisting  of  a  separate  hollow 
bamboo  and  hopper,  into  which  a  second  sower  drops  the 
seed  required  for  the  third  row.  This  seed-tube  is  made  to 
run  in  the  track  left  by  the  tooth  of  Xhe  gorru  which  has  been 
put  out  of  action  and  thus  sows  the  seed  at  the  proper  distance 
from  the  other  rows.  By  obvious  variations  of  this  system  it 
is  possible  to  sow  the  different  seeds  in  alternate  lines  or 
in  such  other  proportions  as  may  be  desired.  To  prevent 
dishonesty  or  unnecessary  waste  of  seed  the  machine  is 
generally  fed  by  the  ryot  himself  or  one  of  his  family.  In  the 
black  cotton  country  the  work  is  usually  done  by  a  woman. 

The  use  of  the  gorrii  effects  a  saving  of  labour  in  the 
matter  of  weeding,  which  can  be  done  by  bullock  power  in- 
stead of  by  hand  ;  for  the  teeth  of  the  gorru  are  attached  to  it 


Weeding. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  ^^ 

at  even  intervals  of  about  nine  inches  or  a  foot,  so  that  the    CHAP.  IV 
field  can  be  v^reeded  by  driving  an  implement  so  constructed    dryCl'iti- 
as   to  pass  between   the  rows   made  by  the  gorru.     Such  an       vation- 

implement  is  that  known  as  the  metla  giintaka.     It  consists  of         

three  blades  resembling  English  hoes  fixed  to  a  transverse  bar 
at  the  requisite  intervals,  and  is  drawn  by  a  pair  of  bullocks. 
This  is  not  very  serviceable  on  an  uneven  surface,  for  which 
another  variety  of  bullock-hoe  is  generally  used.  This  is 
known  as  a  danthi  and  resembles  the  ordinary  giDitaka  in 
shape,  except  that  the  single  blade  attached  to  it  is  of  course 
less  wide.  Three  of  these,  each  guided  by  a  separate  man, 
are  drawn  by  one  pair  of  bullocks.  In  a  rocky  and  uneven 
country  such  as  Rayachoti  taluk  the  advantage  of  this 
composite  implement  lies  in  the  independence  of  each  of  its 
parts,  any  one  of  which  can  be  lifted  over  obstacles  without 
stopping  the  work  of  the  others. 

To  this  general  description  of  agricultural  practice  in  the  Practices 
cultivation  of  dry  lands  must  be  added  some  account  of  the  peculiar  lo 
methods  which  are  peculiar  to  farming  on  black  cotton  soils,  cotton''^'^'^ 
In  the  first  place  the  practice  of  burning  the  stubble  of  the  country, 
last  crop  on  the  land  and  using  the  ashes  as  manure,  which  is 
common  in  other  parts  of  the  district,  is  not  usually  followed. 
Firewood  being  very  scarce,  the  dead  cotton  plants  and  roots 
of  the  cholam  are  generally  collected  and  taken  away  for  fuel. 
This  is  done  before  the  rains  set  in.  Even  after  the  south- 
west monsoon  declares  itself  agricultural  operations  are  not 
begun  till  a  month  or  six  weeks  later  than  elsewhere.  In  July 
or  August  the  ryot  will  sow  some  of  his  lands  with  an  early 
crop,  which  is  locally  known  as  the  mimgari  paini.  The  grain 
thus  sown  is  nearly  always  korra  or  arika.  The  rest  of  his 
holding  is  reserved  for  one  of  the  two  principal  crops  of  the 
country,  namely  cotton  or  cholam,  though  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  marked  predominance  of  the  latter  crop  is  at  length 
threatened  by  the  enormous  increase  in  the  cultivation  of 
groundnut.  The  cotton  is  put  down  towards  the  end  of 
August  and  in  September,  but  only  on  land  which  has  not 
been  grown  with  cotton  for  the  previous  two  years.  The 
practice  of  mixing  cotton  with  other  crops  which,  partly  as  a 
substitute  for  rotation,  often  obtains  elsewhere  is  not  generally 
followed.  The  system  of  rotation  is,  however,  thoroughly 
understood  and  is  given  full  play  in  the  very  extensive 
holdings  which  are  characteristic  of  the  black  cotton  tracts  of 
this  district.  Two-thirds  of  the  land  that  remains  to  be  culti- 
vated apart  from  that  sown  with  an  earl}^  crop  is,  or  was  till 
the  recent   introduction  of  groundnut,    grown   with   cholam, 


7B 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  IV. 

Dry  Culti- 
vation- 


The  pedda 
niadaka  or 
big  plough. 


which  is  put  down  a  few  weeks  after  the  cotton.  The  figures 
showing  the  average  distribution  of  crops  in  Jammalamadugu 
taluk  for  the  five  years  immediately  preceding  the  recent 
resettlement  indicate  how  uniform  was  this  system,  under 
which  every  holding  contains  about  twice  as  much  cholam  as 
cotton,  for  cholam  represents  50*14  per  cent,  of  the  total  culti- 
vated area  and  cotton  25*10  per  cent.  The  mungdri  crop 
accounts  for  about  20  per  cent,  and  the  small  remainder  is 
mainly  represented  by  paddy  and  indigo.  Cholam  is  often 
mixed  with  various  pulses  by  which  means  it  is  said  the  ryot 
is  enabled  to  keep  all  his  cholam  and  pay  the  assessment  with 
what  he  gets  for  the  rest. 

As  individual  holdings  sometimes  run  to  two  or  three 
hundred  acres  and  the  whole  extent  has  to  be  sown  in  a  little 
more  than  two  months,  it  follows  that  the  ryot  has  no  time  to 
lose  once  he  begins  operations.  Cotton  especially  is  a  crop 
that  cannot  be  grown  successfully  unless  put  down  at  the 
proper  time.  Consequently  the  ryot  makes  no  attempt  to 
plough  annually  more  than  about  one-third  of  his  holding,  the 
rest  being  merely  scuffled  by  the  giintaka.  Very  little  manure 
is  used,  and  that  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  village-site. 
Though  the  value  of  manure  is  well  recognized  it  is  scarce, 
and  the  amount  needed  for  an  average  holding  in  these  parts 
would  be  prohibitive.  This  and  the  natural  fertility  of  the 
soil  render  its  use  uncommon. 

Although  the  usual  S5'^stem  of  tillage  is  poor  the  ryots  are 
aware  of  the  value  of  deep  cultivation,  as  is  shown  by  their 
use  of  the  pedda  madaka  or  big  plough.  It  is  of  wood  like  the 
ordinary  plough  but  weighs  about  230  lb.  and  requires  six 
pairs  of  bullocks  and  raw-hide  traces  to  pull  it.  While  the 
ordinary  plough  is  used  but  once  in  three  years,  land  is  only 
very  exceptionally  brought  under  the  big  plough,  the  effect  of 
which  is  however  said  to  be  observable  for  ten  years.  It  was 
formerly  chiefly  used  for  bringing  waste  under  cultivation  and 
clearing  land  that  had  got  foul  with  the  deep  rooted  hariali 
grass.  Now  that  there  remains  but  little  valuable  waste  to 
reclaim,  its  use  has  become  more  general,  but  the  area 
annually  operated  on  is  very  small.  The  crop  usually  taken 
immediately  after  the  deep  tillage  is  Bengal  gram.  It  is  said 
that  in  the  adjoining  taluk  of  Tadpatri,  in  Anantapur  district, 
the  pedda  madaka  has  in  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  been 
largely  superseded  by  iron  ploughs  of  European  pattern. 
This  is  not  the  case  in  Cuddapah  district,  perhaps  because 
the  black  cotton  tract  is  too  remote  from  any  convenient 
centre  of  distribution. 


AGRICULTURE  AND   IRRIGATION'  79 

The  threshing  of  chohim  is  begun  only  after  the  entire  CHAP.  IV. 
crop  has  been  brought  in.  The  heads  of  the  plant  are  stacked  dry  Culti- 
in    heaps  on  or  near  the  threshing  floor  and  protected  by   a       vation. 

covering  of  the  stalks  till  the  reaping    is  over.     The  crop  is         

then  spread  on  the  floor  and   rolled  with   light  stone  rollers   ^^^"^^'^^^'^S- 
drawn    by    bullocks.     This    practice     is    now    universal    in 
Jammalamadugu  taluk,   having  entirely   superseded   the  old 
system  of  treading  out  the  corn  by  cattle. 

Besides  cholam  straw  which  is  said  to  be  excellent  fodder  Cattle  foad. 
the  ryot  of  these  parts  usually  feeds  his  cattle  on  cotton  seed 
and  husks  of  the  green-gram  (phaseolus  mungo).  Bulls  in 
heavy  work  are  given  horse-gram.  If  other  fodder  is  scarce 
cattle  are  occasionally  fed  with  cholam  picked  green  from  the 
field.  The  cattle  being  of  the  heavy  Nellore  breed  and  very 
valuable  demand  and  obtain  better  treatment  than  is  accorded 
to  the  small  local  variety  in  other  parts  of  the  district. 

Improved  varieties  of  the  cotton  plant  have  been  intro-  Modem 
duced  and  are  making  some  headway  in  the  district,  but  '^^'"^ses. 
their  undoubted  superiority  is,  it  is  said,  counterbalanced 
by  the  fact  that  their  seeds  are,  unlike  the  country  variety, 
unsuitable  for  cattle  food :  so  that  the  ryot  gains  little 
if  any  advantage  by  their  cultivation.  By  far  the  most 
important  change,  which  dates  from  only  tv/o  years  ago,  is 
involved  in  the  extensive  substitution  of  the  groundnut  for 
cholam.  It  may  perhaps  be  thought  strange  that  the  r3'ot  of 
this  part  of  the  country  has  been  so  slow  to  recognize  the 
advantages  of  cultivating  this  remunerative  crop,  which  has 
for  many  years  steadily  gained  favour  in  other  parts  of  the 
district.  At  any  rate  his  obstinate  conservatism  has  at  length 
given  way  before  the  growing  popularity  of  this  foreign  root 
and  he  appears  to  have  cast  aside  all  hesitation  in  the  matter 
of  its  adoption.  There  is  no  doubt  that  thousands  of  acres, 
which  were  grown  with  cholam  three  or  four  years  ago,  are  now 
under  groundnut.  Two  husking  mills  were  opened  at  Konda- 
puram  last  year,  and  two  more  at  Muddanur  and  one  at 
Yerraguntla  in  the  current  year.  It  is  impossible  as  yet  to 
foresee  how  far  groundnut  will  eventually  replace  cholam  in 
the  black  cotton  country.  Its  further  extension  must  largely 
depend  on  whether  the  soil  is  found  as  suitable  to  a  rotation 
of  groundnut  and  cotton  as  it  is  to  one  of  cotton  and  cholam, 
and  whether  the  ryot  will  be  content  to  become  a  purchaser 
of  food-grain  instead  of  raising  it  on  his  own  land.  This 
remarkable  development  of  the  groundnut  in  the  best  black 
cotton  tracts  of  the  district  presents  exactly  the  same  features 
that  characterized  its  introduction  into  Pulivendla  taluk  which. 


8o 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  IV. 

Dry  Culti- 
vation, 


Irrigation. 
General. 


Kiver 
channels. 


occurring  just  before  the  resettlement,  is  adverted  to  by  Mr. 
T.  E.  Moir  in  his  scheme  report  as  follows: — "Unrecorded 
prior  to  fasli  1316^  it  was  in  that  year  grown  on  7.042  acres, 
while  in  fasli  1317  the  area  under  it  had  increased  to  21,448 
acres  or  nearly  11  per  cent,  of  the  total  cultivated  area. 
Figures  are  not  available  for  the  present  year,  but  I  found 
large  areas  under  it,  more  especially  in  the  western  part  of 
the  taluk,  and  it  has  evidently  come  to  stay  and  in  1317 
seriously  encroached  on  both  cotton  and  indigo  .  .  .  It  is 
grown  on  soils  of  all  kinds  including  fairly  heavy  black  loams 
and  clays.  The  boom  may  prove  temporary,  but  if  not  the 
introduction  of  groundnut  will  greatly  affect  the  agricultural 
practice  of  the  taluk  and  the  area  devoted  to  food  crops." 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  uneven  distribution 
of  irrigated  cultivation  in  the  district.  It  is  also  noticeable 
that  different  forms  of  irrigation  are  typical  of  different  parts. 
In  the  low-lying  taluks  west  of  the  Nallamalais,  which  are 
watered  by  the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  system  and  the 
Penner,  Papaghni  and  Chitravati  rivers,  channel  irrigation 
prevails.  In  the  eastern  division  where  the  most  important 
tanks  in  the  district  are  found,  of  which  about  sixty-five 
irrigate  ayacuts  exceeding  250  acres,  more  than  71  per  cent,  of 
the  occupied  wet  area  is  tank-fed.  The  Badvel  and  Poruma- 
milla  tanks  have  occupied  ayacuts  of  nearly  3,000  acres  each, 
while  those  at  Vontimitta  and  Ramapuram  in  Sidhout  taluk 
and  at  Pedda  Orampad,  Poli,  Cherlopalle  and  Penagalur  in 
Pullampet  taluk  each  irrigate  over  1,000  acres.  In  addition  to 
its  tanks  Pullampet  taluk  also  benefits  considerably  by  chan- 
nel irrigation  from  the  Cheyyer  and  its  tributaries.  This  river, 
under  the  name  of  Bahudanadi,  also  affords  irrigation  facili- 
ties to  six  villages  in  the  south-east  corner  of  Rayachoti  taluk 
which  is  otherwise  devoid  of  reliable  sources  and  depends  on 
well  irrigation  to  a  larger  extent  than  the  rest  of  the  district. 

The  vast  majority  of  river  channels  take  their  rise  in  spring 
heads  excavated  in  the  sandy  river  beds  and  often  flow  long 
distances  in  the  bed  or  along  the  bank  of  the  river  before 
reaching  their  ayacuts.  A  few  channels  from  the  Cheyyer  in 
Pullampet  taluk  are  provided  with  head  sluices,  and  there  are 
two  or  three  anicut  channels  taking  off  from  the  Gunjana  river, 
a  tributary  of  the  Cheyyer  in  the  same  taluk,  a  narrow  stony 
bedded  stream,  which  contracts  into  isolated  pools  in  the  hot 
weather  instead  of  completely  drying  up  and  thus  lends  itself 
more  readily  to  anicut  irrigation  than  the  wide  sandy  beds  of 
the  larger  rivers.     But  with  these  exceptions  the  river  channels 

'  1906-07. 


AGRICULTURE   AND  IRRIGATION 


8i 


of  the  district  are  devoid  of  any  permanent  construction   and   CHAP.  IV, 
depend  for  their  maintenance  on  the  spade  work  of  the  ryots   Irrigation 

whose  interest    it   is  to  keep  them    up.      Every    landholder  

claiming  irrigation  from  such  a  channel  must  contribute  his 
quota  of  labour,  or  its  equivalent  in  money,  according  to  the 
extent  occupied  by  him.  If  properly  maintained,  these  river 
channels  will  ordinarily  afford  a  supply  sufficient  to  raise  two 
paddy  crops-  Most  of  the  river  channels  of  the  district  take 
off  from  the  Papaghni  in  its  course  through  the  Surabhu  valley 
and  northwards  to  Kamalapuram  and  from  the  Cheyyer  in 
Pullampet  taluk.  The  Chitravati  also  contains  some  good 
channels  but  it  only  touches  the  western  fringe  of  the  district. 
Owing  to  the  steepness  of  its  banks  the  Penner  which  is  the 
largest  river  in  the  district  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  irrigation 
as  its  tributaries. 

A  feature  of  the  tank  irrigation  of  the  district  is  the  large  Tanks, 
number  of  good-sized  tanks  that  depend  for  their  supply 
mainly  if  not  exclusively  on  the  rainfall.  The  situation  of 
the  eastern  division  between  the  Veligondas  on  the  east  and 
the  Nallamalais  and  Seshachalams  on  the  west  is  particularly 
favourable  to  the  storage  of  water  in  the  rainy  season.  Most 
of  the  tanks  of  the  district,  notably  those  of  Porumamilla  and 
Badvel,  were  constructed  some  hundreds  of  years  ago.  The 
large  tank  at  Porumamilla  was  built  by  one  of  the  earliest 
■of  the  Vijayanagar  princes,  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  14th 
century  A.D.,  and  the  Badvel  tank  by  a  raja  of  the  Matli 
family  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  principal  period  of  tank  construction  in 
the  district  coincided  with  the  apparently  uneventful  era, 
corresponding  roughly  to  the  15th  century,  which  marked  the 
heyday  of  Vijayanagar  supremacy,  when  diamond  mines  were 
being  worked  at  the  foot  of  the  Nallamalais.  The  practice  of 
granting  dasabandham  inams  to  the  principal  ayacutdars  on 
condition  of  maintaining  a  tank  in  good  condition  was  particu- 
larly prevalent  in  this  district,  and,  if  we  may  rely  on  an 
inscription  discovered  in  Pulivendla  taluk,  dates  back  at  least 
to  the  14th  century.  These  inams  were  always  confirmed  by 
subsequent  governments,  but  in  the  last  sixty  years  many 
of  them  have  been  resumed  owing  to  the  conditions  of  the 
grant  not  being  fulfilled.  They  are  particularly  numerous  in 
Rayachoti  taluk  where  they  generally  take  the  form  of  money 
remissions. 

The  distribution  of  wells  throughout  the  district  is    largely   Weiu. 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  adequacy  of  other 
means  of  irrigation,     There  are  naturally  but  few  wells  to  be 


82  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP   IV     found  in   the  heavy  black  soils  of  the  western  taluks  which 
q'^    are    generally  unsuited  to    irrigation    and    present    unusual 
RRiGATioN.   ^.^^^^^^jgg  jj^  ^j^g  matter  of  excavation.     In  the  neighbourhood 
of  Cuddapah,   the  prevalence  of  well  irrigation  indicates   a 
high  order  of  farming  rather  than  the  necessity  of  protection 
against  drought.     The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  a  fine  free  loam 
and  the  water  level  is  usually  near  the  surface,  while  the  town 
affords  large   supplies  of   manure.    As   land   endowed   with 
such    advantages   of  situation    and   natural   fertility   can   be 
brought  to  an  excellent  condition  at  a  comparatively  low  cost, 
want  of  capital,  which  is  the  chief  obstacle  to  good  farming, 
is   less   felt   here  than  elsewhere.     With    this  exception  the 
largest   number    of    wells    are   to   be   found   in  the   poorest 
tracts.     Rayachoti  taluk  contains  about  5,700  wells,  of  which 
nearly  half  were  till  recently  dasabandham  wells.     In  extend- 
ing to  wells  the  policy  of  granting  dasabandham  inams  for 
their  upkeep,  former  governments  evidently  placed  but  little 
value    on    private    enterprise.     This    view    may    have    been 
justified  at  a  time  when  all  well  lands  were  assessed  at  a  much 
higher  rate  than  ordinary   "  dry  "  lands.     But  with  the  recog- 
nition of  the  principle  that  ryots'  improvements  should  not  be 
taxed  and  the  assimilation  of  "  garden  "  or  "  well  "  lands  to 
"  dry,"  the  holders  of  dasabandham  wells,  under  which  the 
wet  rates,  though  diminished  by  the  dasabandham  allowances 
and  remission  for  lift,  still  greatly  exceeded   the   dry  rates, 
laboured  under  disadvantages  from  which   owners  of  private 
wells    were    free.     Consequently    many    hundreds    of  dasa- 
bandham wells  throughout  the  district  were  abandoned  in  the 
last  half  century,  and  their  loss  is  but  just  balanced  by  private 
enterprise,  so  that  the  total  number  of  wells  in  the  district  at 
present  differs  but    little    from    that    recorded    prior   to   the 
original  settlement.     As  dasabandham  wells  were  with  the 
consent  of  the  inamdars  converted  into  private  property,  the 
inams  resumed,  and  the  ayacuts  assessed  at  dry  rates  at  the 
recent  resettlement,  it  is  believed  that  the  tendency  to  allow 
wells  to  fall   into  ruin  has  been  to  a   large  extent   arrested, 
though  their  abandonment  is  also  in  some  cases  to  be  attri- 
buted to  the  divergence  of  the  sub-soil  water  or  the  drying  up  of 
springs.     The  taluks  of  Badvel,  Sidhout  and  PuUampet  contain 
in  the  aggregate  but  one  thousand  more  wells  than  Rayachoti, 
their  frequency  in  the  latter  taluk  being,  as  already  observed, 
due  to  the  necessity  of  supplementing  in   all  ordinary   years 
the  inadequate  irrigation  afforded  by  its  insignificant  tanks. 
Many  of  the  wells  in  the  eastern  taluks  are  doruvu  wells  which 
are  constructed  by  revetting  the   river  banks.     The  Penner, 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  S3 

Sagiler    and    Gunjana  rivers  are  specially  adapted    to    the    CHAP.  IV. 
construction  of  these  wells.  Irrigation. 

The  only  water  lift   in  general   use   in   the  district  is  the         

single  mhote  or  kapila-  The  picottah  is  scarcely  known. 
Two  pairs  of  cattle  are  generally  employed  to  work  the  single 
mhote,  one  walking  back  up  the  slope  while  the  other  is 
raising  the  water  bucket.  A  man  unhitches  the  rope  from 
the  yoke  of  the  cattle  as  soon  as  the  bucket  is  empty  and 
returning  quickly  up  the  slope  attaches  it  to  the  yoke  of  the 
second  pair  which  is  waiting  ready.  This  is  an  improvement 
on  the  method  by  which  one  pair  of  cattle  is  used  and  made 
to  back  up  the  steep  slope  every  time  the  bucket  is  let  down 
into  the  well.  The  system  however  involves  a  waste  of  cattle 
power,  which  is  enhanced  by  the  universal  use  of  leaky 
leather  buckets  and  inferior  pulleys- 

To  this  general  description  of  the  irrigation  of  the  district   Irrigation 
must  be  added  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  great  irrigation   ^o'^^s. 
works  which  have  been  undertaken  at  different  periods  with 
the  object  of  bringing  large  portions  of  the   district  under 
effective   protection.     The   most    important   of    these  is    the 
Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal. 

This  project  owed  its  inception  to  the  policy  inaugurated   The  Kurnool- 
in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  of  introducing  into  India   Cuddapah 

T^   •    •    1  -1  1  •        •        ,  .        ^  .      .  .  Canal. 

British  capital  and  enterprise  in  the  construction  01  irrigation 
works.  The  canal  forms  only  a  section  of  the  original 
ambitious  design  undertaken  by  the  Madras  Irrigation  and 
Canal  Company  which  was  incorporated  in  1858.  The  capital 
of  the  company  was  to  be  £l,000,000  on  which  Government 
guaranteed  5  per  cent,  interest-  The  Madras  Government 
was  not  in  favour  of  the  work  being  undertaken  by  a  private 
company,  but  the  Government  of  India  was  desirous  of 
attracting  private  capital  to  such  enterprises  and  the  highly 
successful  results  of  irrigation  work  in  the  delta  tracts  as  well 
as  the  views  held  by  the  late  Sir  Arthur  Cotton  and  other 
irrigation  experts  contributed  to  the  decision  of  the  Secretary 
of  State  to  accept  the  company's  proposals. 

The  canal  takes  off  from  an  anient,  seventeen  miles  above 
the  town  of  Kurnool,  on  the  river  Tungabhadra,  which  skirts 
the  district  of  Bellary  and  joins  the  Kistna  in  that  of  Kurnool. 
The  anient  supplying  the  canal  is  built  across  the  Tunga- 
bhadra at  Sunkesula.  It  is  fifteen  hundred  yards  in  length, 
is  founded  on  rock,  has  a  clear  overfall,  and  is  furnished  with 
a  set  of  under-sluices.  The  canal  enters  the  Cuddapah  district 
at  Suddapalle  in  Jammalamadugu  taluk  and  passing  through 
the  Proddatur  taluk  crosses  the  Pcnner  at  the  182nd  mile  and 


84  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  IV.     finally  discharges  into  a  stream  a  few  miles  west  of  Cuddapah 
Irpigation.   town.     Its    continuation    parallel   to    the    Penner   as   far   as 

the    Pulicat    lake    was    originally    contemplated    but    never 

carried  out. 

Owing  to  a  threatened  famine,  work  was  commenced  in 
the  Kurnool  section  in  i860.  As  a  result  of  hasty  procedure, 
engineering  difficulties  and  mistakes,  and  extravagance  and 
carelessness  in  the  management,  the  guaranteed  million  was 
expended  by  1866,  by  which  time  only  half  of  the  section  had 
been  completed.  Fresh  contracts  were  made  in  that  year  by 
which  operations  were  restricted  to  the  canal  between  Sun- 
kesula  and  Cuddapah  and  new  financial  arrangements  were 
made.  By  1871  the  canal  was  finished  throughout  its  length, 
though  its  capacity  and  efficiency  were  by  no  means  satis- 
factory. Even  then  very  little  use  was  made  of  the  water  by 
the  ryots  and  with  the  exception  of  the  famine  years  1877-78, 
the  working  of  the  canal  resulted  in  an  annual  deficit  which 
was  met  by  the  Government.  In  view  of  the  increasing  loss 
thus  entailed.  Government  purchased  the  canal  and  assumed 
charge  on  July  I,  1882,  at  a  cost  which,  including  direct 
payments  and  claims  surrendered,  amounted  to  £3,018,758. 
The  total  length  of  the  canal  which  thus  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  State  is  190  miles,  of  which  about  62  lie  in 
this  district. 

Prior  to  the  assumption  of  control  by  the  Government  there 
had   been    considerable   friction    between  the  ryots  and  the 
company's   officers   and   it  had  been  thought  for  many  years 
before  the  transfer  actually  took  place  that  applications  for 
water  would  be  made  more  readily  if  the  canal  were  managed 
by  Government  agency.     Permanent  causes  operating  against 
the  financial   success  of  the  canal  were  however  recognized, 
such  as  the  sparseness  of  the  population   and  the  large  tracts 
of  heavy   regada  soil  commanded  by  the  canal,  which  really 
needed  no  irrigation.     As  soon   as  Government  took  over  its 
management,  the  irrigation  rates  were  considerably  lowered; 
but  in  spite  of  this  concession  and  the  change  in  administra- 
tion little  improvement  was  shown  either  in  the  area  irrigated 
or  in  the   revenue  realized.     In  reviewing  the  Administration 
Report   of  Irrigation    Works    in   the  Madras  Presidency  for 
1887-88,   the   Government  of  India   remarked  as  follows  : — 
"The   financial   position   of  this   canal  is  in  the  last  degree 
unsatisfactory  ;  not  only  did  the   revenue  fall  off  during  the 
last  year  and  the  irrigated  area  decrease,  but  at  no  time  since 
the    canal   was   bought  by   Government   has  it  been  worked 
except  at  a   heavy  loss.     There   is  a  loss  both  in  navigation 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  85 

and  irrigation   and,   while  the  irrigation  return  is  Rs.  2'5  per  CHAP.  iv 
acre  irrigated,  the  cost,  of  working  expenses  falls   at  Rs.  6-5    Irrigation 

per  acre,   and  there   is  no  prospect  of  any  material  improve-  

ment.  The  total  estimated  value  of  the  crops  raised  under 
irrigation,  Rs.  2,48,330,  does  not  largely  exceed  the  sum  which 
it  cost  Government  to  supply  the  water.  The  revenue 
expenditure  on  works  and  repairs  alone  (Rs.  1,11,780)  is  nearly 
double  the  income  earned  by  the  canal.  It  would  appear  that 
it  might  be  economical  to  close  the  canal  as  an  irrigating 
system  merely  keeping  it  in  repairs  so  as  to  be  ready  to  be 
put  in  working  again,  if  a  season  of  drought  should  create  a 
sudden  demand  for  the  water.  The  Governor-General  in 
Council  trusts  that  the  Government  of  Madras  will  consider 
the  question  and  formulate  such  proposals  as  may  seem  to 
them  expedient  with  a  view  to  putting  a  stop  to  the  constant 
drain  on  the  treasury,  which  the  maintenance  of  the  canal 
on  its  present  footing  entails." 

In  August  1890,  the  Government  accordingly  sanctioned 
the  appointment  of  a  Special  Deputy  Collector  for  nine  months 
to  enquire  into  the  possibilities  existing  for  the  further  exten- 
sion of  irrigation  under  the  canal. 

The  report   of  this    officer  contained  a  number  of  sugges- 
tions,  the   most  important   of  which    was  the  appointment  of 
a   Special   Revenue  Officer   on  the  canal.     As  a  result  of  this 
report  the  appointment  of  a  Special  Deputy  Collector  to  be  in 
revenue  charge  of  the  canal  for  two  years  from  the  l6th  March 
1894  was  sanctioned  by  the  Government  and  this  appointment 
was,  by  subsequent  extensions,  continued  till  the  end  of  March 
1907.     This  measure  met  with  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
success,    and    inaugurated   an    era   of    improvement    in    the 
financial  history  of  the  canal.     From  1894  to  1903  the  excess 
of  revenue  over   expenditure    increased  fourfold.     The  canal 
has   been    a    greater   success    in    Cuddapah  than  in  Kurnool, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  proportion  of  the  commanded 
area  adapted  to  irrigation  is  higher  in  the  Cuddapah    district. 
Statistics  of  cultivation  under  the  canal  for  the    five    years 
ending  June   30,  1913,  show  that  the  average  extent  annually 
irrigated  in  this  district  is  28,702  acres,  of  which  nearly  5,000 
acres  are  cropped  twice  in  the  year. 

Connected  with   the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  sj^stem  are   TheChipid 
two    important  irrigation  works  known  as  the  Chapad    and  ^^^ 
Maidukuru  projects,  which   came   into  operation  in    the  last   '^r^ect''"'^" 
decade.     The  Chapad  channel   and  its  distributaries  benefit 
a  tract   of  country    extending  about  12  miles  south-eastwards 
from  Gopavaram,  a  village  three  miles  north  of  Proddatur,  to 


86  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  IV.     the  junction  of  the  Kunder  with  the  Penner,  and  lying  wholly 
Irrigation    between  these  rivers  with  a  maximum  breadth  of  about  6  miles. 

The    project   was   first   sanctioned  as  a  famine  relief  work  in 

1897  at  an  estimated  cost  of  about  three  and  a  half  lakhs,  and 
was  put  in  hand  in  the  year  1900  when  work  was  needed  for 
relief  purposes.  In  the  course  of  execution  it  was  found  that 
the  provision  made  for  some  of  the  works  was  inadequate  and 
that  some  additional  works  were  necessary  for  the  completion 
of  the  scheme,  with  the  result  that  the  estimate  was  revised 
and  the  total  expenditure  incurred,  including  indirect  charges, 
actually  amounted  to  nearly  six  lakhs.  The  channel  was 
opened  for  irrigation  in  1904  and  has  at  present  five  distribu- 
taries. It  is  however  intended  to  construct  a  sixth  distribu- 
tary, for  which  purpose  land  is  now  being  acquired.  The 
Maidukuru  project  takes  its  name  from  the  village  of  Maidu- 
kuru  the  northernmost  of  some  nine  villages  situated  along  the 
Cuddapah-Kurnool  road  which  are  benefited  by  the  project. 
'I  he  names  of  these  villages  are  given 
Maidukuru.  in  the  margin.    The  Maidukuru  channel 

ivapuram.  takes   off  from  the  left    bank    of    the 

PuUur. 

Ravulapaile.  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  at  171  miles, 

Duppalagatta,  40  chaius,  and  the  project  was  designed 

Chemuiiapaile.  to  improve  this  channel   for  a  distance 

Chennamakkapalle.  ^^    ^  j-^^j^    ^^^^  ^^^^^    ^-j^g^     extend    it 

Buddavapalle. 

Boyanapalie.  ^^^  ^   length    of    II    miles,   to  provide 

the  necessary  branch  channels  and 
masonry  works  so  as  to  irrigate  an  extent  of  8,000  acres  in  all, 
and  in  seasons  of  drought  to  supply  tanks  in  the  nine 
villages  above  mentioned.  The  project,  originally  estimated 
to  cost  about  Rs.  2,30,000,  was  finally  completed  at  an  outlay 
of  a  little  over  three  lakhs,  and  the  area  which  it  was 
intended  to  operate,  namely  8,000  acres,  has  in  fact  been 
brought  under  irrigation,  so  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a 
successful  enterprise. 
3'^^^^^s»i'=r  This  project  takes  its  name  from  the  Sagiler    river  which 

rises  in  the  Nallamalai  hills  in  Kurnool  district  and,  draining 
the  narrow  valley  between  these  hills  and  the  eastern  ghats, 
enters  the  Badvel  taluk  at  its  extreme  north  end  and  after 
traversing  the  Badvel  and  Sidhout  taluks  falls  into  the  Penner. 
It  is  not  a  perennial  stream  but  a  jungle  torrent  which  in  an 
ordinary  year  flows  for  about  twenty  days.  The  project, 
which  was  designed  to  improve  the  supply  to  the  Porumamilla 
tank,  consists  of  an  anient  across  the  Sagiler  about  three 
miles  north  of  Kalasapad  and  a  main  channel  taking  off  at 
this    point    and    extending    a    distance   of   ten    miles   to  the 


project. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION 


87 


TUKISTS. 


POrumamilla  tank.     By  means  of  head  sluices  at  various  points    cHAP.  IV. 
in  its  course  the  channel  affords  a  supply  to  the  four  smaller  Irrigation. 

tanks  of  Kalasapad,  Pendlimarri,  Pidugupalle  and  Akkisetti-         

palle  and  between  the  8th  and  9th  mile  passes  through  the 
Chintalapalle  tank  before  finally  crossing  the  Cumbum  road 
and  tailing  into  the  Porumamilla  tank.  Including  establish- 
ment and  indirect  charges  the  total  cost  of  the  work  amounted 
to  rather  more  than  four  and  a  half  lakhs.  Operations 
were  begun  in  the  year  1898,  and  the  construction  estimate 
was  closed  on  March  31,1907.  Judging  from  the  additional 
revenue  realized  in  the  five  years  succeeding  the  completion 
of  the  project,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  very  remunerative,  as 
the  return  on  the  capital  outlay  represented  less  than  one  per 
cent,  per  annum. 

The  average  extent  of  ryots' holdings  as  indicated  by  the   Economic 
assessment  they  bear  constitutes  an   important  factor  in   the  Condition 
economic  condition  of  the  agricultural  population  as  a  whole.      .   °^ 

A.CRICI'T 

There  are  but  few  great  landholders  and  they  are  chiefly 
found  in  the  black  cotton  country.  More  than  70  per  cent,  of 
the  holdings  in  the  district  are  assessed  at  less  than  Rs.  10, 
while  those  bearing  over  Rs.  50  do  not  exceed  three  per  cent- 
As  about  five-sevenths  of  the  population  of  the  district  are 
agriculturists  the  small  ryot  accordingly  represents  by  far  the 
majority  of  its  inhabitants,  and  it  is  on  his  economic  condition 
that  the  prosperity  of  the  district  largely  depends. 

It  is  a  truism  that  in  this  class  of  people  material  progress 
is  least  to  be  expected.  They  are,  it  seems,  incapable  of 
bringing  their  minds  to  bear  on  the  problem  of  bettering  their 
condition.  Their  horizon  is  bounded  by  the  next  harvest,  their 
stereotyped  habits  and  universal  respect  for  old  customs  as 
such  induce  a  positive  fear  of  innovation,  while  that  element 
of  intelligent  self-interest  which  western  economists  predicate 
of  the  'ordinary  man  '  is  in  their  case  curiously  ill-developed. 
Their  mental  habit  is  stagnation,  and  the  difficulty  of  educa- 
ting them  out  of  it  can  scarcely  be  exaggerated.  A  system  of 
education  which  embraces  from  the  beginning  the  special  con- 
sideration of  their  peculiar  educational  needs  as  agriculturists 
would  seem  to  offer  the  best  promise  of  ultimate  success.  If 
the  education  of  this  class  of  people  has  hitherto  failed  in  its 
object,  such  failure  must  be  attributed  to  its  being  usually 
divorced  from  all  the  interests  of  their  life  work.  At  any  rate 
it  is  difficult  to  point  to  any  change  of  practice  or  modification 
of  manners  in  the  last  three  decades  in  any  way  indicative  of 
the  progress  of  enlightenment,  and  I  cannot  do  better  than 
quote  the  following  description  of  these  people,  contained  in 


Agricul- 
turists. 


88  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  IV.  an  official  report '  of  thirty-five  years  ago  :  "In  this  district 
Economic  (Cuddapah)  the  cultivators  are  as  a  rule  altogether  illiterate, 
Condition  despising  and  rejecting  all  education  for  their  sons,  as  being 
^I „,..  likely  to  unsettle  them  and  lead  them  in  turn  to  despise  the 
vocation  of  their  forefathers.  They  ask  '  of  what  use  is 
writing,  if  our  sons  cannot  plough  and  work  on  our  fields 
properly  }  '  This  objection  is  one  which  has  been  met  with 
amongst  the  rural  populations  of  nearly  all  countries.  At  the 
same  time  the  adherence  to  custom,  which  is  so  strongly 
developed  in  this  country  is,  I  think,  more  powerful  in 
this  district  than  in  the  south.  The  obstruction  which  this 
feature  has  presented  to  agricultural  progress  in  all  coun- 
tries is  well  known,  and  it  might  almost  be  said  that  the 
persons  in  the  old  story,  ^  which  is  often  quoted  to  exemplify 
this  in  England,  could  have  been  a  Government  official 
advocating  the  use  of  a  European  plough,  and  a  ryot  of  this 
country  replying  to  him.  But  no  doubt  to  a  certain  extent  it 
is,  as  Wren  Hoskins  says,  '  a  mistake  to  attribute  these  things 
to  obstinacy  or  any  unwillingness  to  adopt  an  improvement 
that  can  be  perceived;  it  is  in  the  perceptive  faculty  that  the 
impediment  lies — a  faculty  which  will  not  act  of  itself  without 
exercise,  '  and  one  which  the  circumstances  of  the  life  of  the 
ryot  do  nothing  to  develop,  but  much  to  deaden.  Causes  and 
effects  follow  so  slowly  in  agriculture,  that  the  difficulty  of 
following  out  the  teaching  of  experiments  is  very  great.  If  we 
add  to  those  agencies  the  extreme  poverty,  the  manifold 
superstitions  and  other  influences  affecting  the  ryot,  it  is 
difficult  to  reasonably  expect  that  in  the  longest  life  of 
effort  for  agricultural  improvement  much  can  be  effected 
in  the  modification  of  his  present  practices,  unless  pressure 
is  brought  to  bear  on  the  cultivators  by  their  landlord — the 
State. 

"The  amount  of  capital  which  the  ryot  possesses  is 
generally  extremely  small ;  and  were  he  willing,  he  would  not 
be  able  to  make  many  experiments  with  changes  of  his  system, 
which  he  has  at  least  found  to  bring  him  means  of  subsistence 
in  ordinary  seasons.  If  by  any  means  new  men — men  not 
born  and  bred  in  it — can  be  induced  to  embark  in  agriculture, 

^  Report  of  a  tour  in  the  Cuddapah  and  North  Arcot  districts  made  in  August 
1879,  by  C.  Benson,  m.r.a.c,  Acting  Superintendent  of  Government  Farms. 

*  This  well-known  story  is  that  a  certain  nobleman,  seeing  a  man  ploughing 
a  light  soil  with  four  horses  in  a  line,  got  off  his  horse,  unhooked  the  two  leaders, 
harnessed  the  two  others  abreast,  and  ploughed  a  few  furrows  out  with  his  own 
hands,  intending  to  show  how  easily  it  might  be  done  with  a  pair.  "  Ah  !  it's  all 
very  well  for  you  that  can  afford  it,"  said  the  man  ;  "  but  those  newfangled 
improvements  nre  too  expensive  for  a  poor  man," 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION!  89 

and  to  bring  to  it  such  a  reserve  of  capital  as  will  enable  them    CHAP.  IV. 

to  attempt  things  which  the  ordinary   ryot  cannot  from  his   Economic 

circumstances  adventure  on,  then  can  more  rapid  progress  be   Condition 

expected,  for  such  men  '  often   form  the  most  intelligent  of      .    °^ 

Agricul- 
husbandmen.'     As    an    old    writer    on    English    agriculture      turists 

observes  :     '  They  have  more  zeal  and  fewer    prejudices  to         

surmount  than  those  who  have  been  brought  up  in  it  from 
their  infancy.  Their  closer  attention  and  freedom  from  the 
influence  of  habit  make  amends  for  their  first  ignorance 
of  minutise  ;  and  being  driven  to  the  pains  of  really  study- 
ing their  pursuit,  they  form  their  ideas  upon  its  guiding 
principles.'     .     .     . 

"Thus  it  is,  I  believe, almost  hopeless  to  attempt  to  influence 
the  present  race  of  ryots,  or  even  their  children,  as  long  as 
they  resist  their  being  educated  even  to  the  slightest  degree. 
,  .  .  The  diffusion  of  agricultural  information  amongst 
the  educated  ryots  through  the  schools,  and  by  means  of 
employing  in  the  subordinate  revenue  posts  only  such  men  as 
are  acquainted  with  the  true  principles  of  agriculture,  will  do 
much.  But  if  any  marked  improvement  is  to  be  effected,  it 
must  be  from  the  infusion  of  new  blood  into  the  cultivating 
classes,  and  how  this  is  to  be  done  it  is  difficult  at  present  to 
see." 

Nowadays  there  is  of  course  but  little  active  opposition  to 
education,  but  it  is  at  least  doubtful  whether  the  ryot  considers 
it  to  have  any  practical  bearing  on  his  after-life.  How  the 
remedies  advocated  in  this  report  are  to  be  applied,  namely, 
the  infusion  of  new  blood  into  the  cultivating  classes  and  the 
attraction  of  capital  to  the  land,  is  still  an  unsolved  problem. 
If  the  "  new  men  .  .  .  who  often  form  the  most  intelligent 
of  husbandmen  "  are  furnished  by  the  agricultural  colleges 
in  sufficient  numbers  it  may  be  that  they  are  destined  to 
become  the  pioneers  of  a  forward  movement  in  agriculture,  to 
which  at  any  rate  they  may  be  calculated  to  bring  knowledge, 
brains  and  enterprise  ;  and  that  capital  in  such  a  case  would 
not  be  slow  to  take  advantage  of  the  new  conditions  might  be 
predicted  with  tolerable  certainty. 

In  the  Census  report  of  1911  it  is  recorded  that  nearly  38 
per  cent,  of  the  cultivable  area  of  the  district  is  waste.  If  for 
the  sake  of  argument  half  of  this  is  regarded  as  land  of  the 
worst  kind  the  cultivation  of  which  under  present  conditions 
is  scarcely  remunerative,  it  is  still  clear  that  of  pressure  of 
population  on  the  land,  in  the  sense  of  a  dense  population 
on  a  restricted  area,  there  is  no  indication  whatever.  The 
sparseness  of  the  population  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
13 


TURISTS. 


90  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  IV.    resources  of  the  district,  were  they  properly    exploited.     At 

Economic     present    they    are    inadequate    to    maintain   the    population 

Condition    because  the  occurrence  of  a  famine  or  a  series  of  bad  seasons 

°^  paralyses  agriculture.     Capital    cannot    be    attracted  to  the 

Agricul-      i^  -^  *~^ 

land  till  something  is  done    to  combat  the  disadvantage  of 

the  position  of  the  district  in  the  famine  zone.  The  condi- 
tions of  much  of  the  district,  apart  from  this  liability  to 
drought,  are  by  no  means  unfavourable.  For  example  the 
soils  of  the  black  cotton  country  are  good  and  very  retentive  of 
moisture,  while  the  ryots  are  industrious  and  not  unacquainted 
with  some  of  the  rudiments  of  good  farming,  yet  they  have 
made  no  effort  to  protect  themselves  against  the  effects  of 
a  prolonged  drought.  In  seasons  when  the  rain  fails,  the 
crop  fails,  and  they  find  themselves  face  to  face  with  starva- 
tion. That  such  failure  and  distress  are  unnecessary  there 
is  no  room  for  doubt  in  face  of  the  latest  agricultural  achieve- 
ments in  other  parts  of  the  world  where  the  conditions  of 
soil  and  rainfall,  if  not  of  climate,  do  not  largely  differ 
from  those  obtaining  over  large  areas  of  this  district.  The 
success  that  has  there  ^  attended  scientific  dry-farming  is 
measured  in  the  following  words :  ""The  last  romance  of 
agriculture,  the  most  daring  of  its  many  triumphs,  is  the 
conquest  of  the  desert.  Pictured  in  the  winsome  song  of  the 
Psalmist,  the  sonorous  prose  of  the  Hebrew  prophet,  and 
visioned  in  the  pages  of  a  modern  seer,  it  has  remained  for 
the  latest  science,  the  deep-set  share  and  the  diligent  harrow 
to  complete  the  ancient  prophecy  and  to  produce  a  harvest  of 
corn  from  a  rainless  land." 

But  while  there  is  thus  reason  to  believe  that  the  rich  black 
cotton  soils  can  be  made  to  withstand  the  effects  of  prolonged 
drought,  the  case  is  different  with  the  barren  red  soils  of  the 
upland,  and  much  of  the  dry  land  in  the  east  of  the  district. 
Even  horse-gram,  the  last  resource  of  the  poorest  lands,  cannot 
be  made  to  grow  without  at  least  one  good  shower  of  rain. 
But  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  under  improved  methods 
of  agriculture  these  lands  could  in  good  and  average  years  be 
made  to  yield  an  outturn  so  far  in  excess  of  what  is  now  the 
case  as  largely  to  enable  the  ryot  to  tide  over  the  bad  years 
with  the  surplus  of  the  good.  As  it  is  he  has  no  means  of 
mitigating  adverse  conditions,  and  in  a  series  of  bad  years 
many  a  small  ryot  will  sink  under  the  accumulation  of  his 
indebtedness  and  disappear. 

South  Africa. 
2  See  "The    Nineteenth    Century   and    After"    June     1913  :     "A  rainless 
wheat,' 


AGRICULTURE  AND  IRRIGATION  gt 

By  this  it  is  not  implied  that   indebtedness   is  peculiar  to    CHAP.  IV. 

the  small  ryot  or  confined  to  periods  of  scarcity.     The  ordi-    Economic 

nary  operations  of  agriculture  depend  to  a  considerable  extent  Condition 

on  borrowed  capital,  and  indebtedness  is  common  among  all  '-'^ 

grades  of  ryots.     The  small  ryot  trying  to  establish  himself      T,,o,c-i^c" 

borrows    the  use    of  cattle,  seed  grain,    or  enough  to  keep  

himself  till  the  harvest  season  ;  the  bigger  ryot  buys  cattle  on   '"^^^'J^f- 
. ,        .  ,  ,    ,  "°         -^     .        -'  ness  of  the 

the  instalment  system   and   borrows   money  for  a  marriage  ryot. 

festival  or  other  special  occasion  while  at  the  same  time  he 
possibly  has  money  or  grain  out  at  interest  himself,  for  the 
extent  to  which  the  large  landholders  finance  the  small 
holdings  is  rather  noticeable  in  this  district.  From  one  point 
of  view  it  is  perhaps  advantageous  that  these  transactions 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  big  ryots,  who  are  at  least  likely 
to  time  their  demands  with  more  intelligence  than  a  merchant 
living  in  a  distant  town.  On  the  other  hand  the  greed  of 
land  in  the  rich  black  cotton  plains  is  such  an  overpowering 
passion  that  landholders  of  means  are  only  too  anxious  to 
accommodate  the  smaller  ryots,  in  the  hope  of  eventually 
adding  acre  to  acre.  They  but  seldom  accept  any  security 
but  the  land  itself,  the  usual  rate  of  interest  in  this  case  being 
12  per  cent,  per  annum.  It  is  said  that  they  decline  to  take 
back  small  instalments  of  the  principal,  and  wait  for  years  on 
the  chance  of  the  borrower  failing  to  meet  the  interest,  when 
they  immediately  foreclose.  If  land  were  only  mortgaged  to 
raise  loans  for  agricultural  improvements  there  would  be 
nothing  unsound  in  ryots'  indebtedness.  It  is  unproductive 
debt  and  the  borrowings  necessitated  by  caste  and  social 
customs  to  which  exception  must  be  taken  inasmuch  as  they 
constitute  a  burden  on  the  land  which  the  land  should  not  be 
called  upon  to  bear.  It  is  this  aspect  of  the  ryot's  indebted- 
ness that  renders  his  position  so  precarious,  as  a  succession 
of  bad  seasons,  the  immediate  effect  of  which  he  has  no 
means  of  avoiding  except  by  further  borrowing,  quickly 
strains  his  resources  to  the  breaking  point. 


92 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAPTER  V. 
FORESTS. 


CHAP.  V. 
Forests. 

Their 

situation 
and  area. 


Administra- 
tion. 


Forests — Their  situation  and  area — Administration.  Character 
OF  THE  Forests — The  Red  sanders  tree— Its  uses — Summary. 
Conservancy — Prior  to  the  Madras  Forest  Act  of  1882 — 
Subsequent  operations.  Recent  Working  Plans — Fuel — 
Timber.  Work  in  Progress — Fuel  operations — Timber  opera- 
tions— Sandal-sowing — Minor  forest  produce — Grazing  and 
goat-browsing — Forest  offences — Fire  protection — Stream-bund- 
ing— Cart-tracks  and  bridle-paths — Demarcation — Planting  and 
sowing. 

The  district  of  Cuddapah  contains  some  large  and  import- 
ant forests,  the  systematic  conservancy  of  which  dates  from 
the  passing  of  the  Madras  Forest  Act  of  1882.  They  are 
mainly  situated  on  the  principal  hill  ranges,  namely,  the 
Veligonda,  Seshachalam,  Palkonda,  Lankamalai  and  Nalla- 
malai  hills.  Many  of  the  isolated  blocks  of  rocky  hills  w^hich 
are  scattered  throughout  the  district  and  occur  most  frequently 
in  the  western  taluks  of  Rayachoti,  Pulivendla  and  Proddatur 

have  also  been  constituted 
reserved  forests  ;  but  they  are 
clothed  for  the  most  part  w^ith 
thorny  scrub  jungle  of  an 
inferior  quality  and  are,  from 
a  sylvicultural  point  of  view, 
of  little  value.  The  district 
contains  1,817  square  miles  of 
reserved  forests,  representing 

about  31  per  cent,  of  its  total 

area    and   the   figures   in    the 
margin  give  particulars  of  their  distribution.^ 

Prior  to  191 1  the  district  as  then  constituted  was  divided 
into  three  forest  charges,  known  as  East,  North  and  South 
Cuddapah,  the  latter  corresponding  to  the  old  revenue  sub- 
division of  the  district,  the  headquarters  of  which  was  at 
Madanapalle.     With  the  transfer  of  Kadiri,  Madanapalle  and 

Since  writing  the  above  an  extent  of  about  30  stjuare  miles  of  reserved 
forest  in  the  Seshachalam  )iills  have  been  added  to  this  district  from  that  of 
Chittoor. 


Block. 

Extent  in 
square  miles 

Veliu:onda 

221 

Seshachalam 

327 

Palkonda 

-         35S 

Lankamalai 

212 

Nallanialai 

193 

Isolated  blocks 

... 

506 

Total 

...       1,817 

FORESTS 


93 


Vayalpad  taluks  to  other  districts  the  number  of  charges 
was  reduced  to  two,  which  are  still  known  as  East  and 
North  Cuddapah,  though  they  should  more  properly  be  termed 
East  and  West.''  At  the  same  time  the  administration  was 
rendered  more  effective  by  increasing  the  number  of  ranges, 
of  which  there  had  hitherto  been  three  in  each  division. 
The  east  division  now  contains  five  ranges,  Kodur,  Rajampet, 
Sidhout,  Badvel  and  Porumamilla  ;  and  the  north  division 
four,  namely,  Rayachoti,  Cuddapah,  Pulivendla  and  Proddatur. 
The  boundary  between  the  two  divisions  accordingly  runs 
north  and  south  along  the  watersheds  of  the  Seshachalam, 
Palkonda,  Lankamalai  and  Nallamalai  hills. 

The  two  great  classes  of  evergreen  scrub  and  deciduous 
forest  are  found  here  as  elsewhere.  The  former,  which  is 
confined  to  the  bottom  and  sides  of  ravines  and  to  moist 
localities  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  comprises  the  following 
among  its  principal  trees  and  shrubs.  The  description  of 
these  trees  and  shrubs  is  taken  from  Gamble's  "  Manual  of 
Indian  Timbers  "  : 

Diospyros  chloroxylon  (Ullinda). — A  large  shmb  or  small 
tree,  useful  for  fuel. 

Maha  huxifolia  (Uti). — A  small  tree,  useful  for  fuel. 

Erythroxylon  tnofiogy/iiim  (Devaddri). — A  small  tree.  The 
wood  is  strong,  hard  and  pretty  but  is  little  used  except  for 
fuel.     The  leaves  are  said  to  be  eaten  in  famine  seasons. 

Mimusops  Indica  ( Pala)  and  Hexandra  (Pogada). — Fine 
large  trees.  Wood  is  very  hard  and  heavy,  and  is  valued  as 
fuel.  The  fruit  is  edible.  The  bark  is  used  for  native 
medicinal  purposes.  The  wood  can  be  used  as  timber,  but  its 
great  weight  and  hardness  and  the  existence  of  better  timber 
trees  are  against  it  in  this  respect. 

StrycJuios  nux-vomica  ( Mushti). — A  moderate-sized  tree  or 
shrub.  Leaves,  bark,  fruit  and  especially  the  seeds  are 
poisonous.  The  latter  yield  alkaloids,  strychnine  and  brucine. 
With  two  exceptions  the  tree  is  untouched  by  animals.  The 
Langur  monkey  is  able  to  eat  even  the  seed  with  impunity, 
while  the  goat  occasionally  browses  and  may  even  make  a 
hearty  meal  off  the  very  young  shoots. 

Strycluws  potatorum  (Chilla). — A  moderate-sized  tree. 
Not  poisonous.  The  seeds  are  used  to  clear  muddy  water  by 
rubbing  the  inside  of  the  vessels  with  them.  It  is  known  as 
"clearing  nut"  tree.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  edible  and  is 
made  into  preserve.  The  wood  is  good  and  is  used  for 
ploughs,  building  purposes  and  cart  wheels. 


CHAP.  V. 
Forests. 


Character 

OF    THE 

Forests. 


*  This  alteration  has  since  been  carried  out. 


94 


CUDDAPAH 


Forests. 


CHAP.  V.  Eugenia  jambohina  (Neredu). — A  good  timber  tree.     Use- 

Character   ful  for  building  timber  and  also  for  agricultural   implements. 
OF  THE       Tj^g  bark  is  used  in  native  medicine  as  a  specific  for  dysentery. 

Pterospcrmnm  suhcrifoUiini  (Tada). — A  moderate-sized  tree. 
The  wood  is  used  chiefly  for  fuel  but  also  for  making  carts. 

Sapindiis  e?narginatus  (Knnkudn). — A  large  tree.  The  fruit 
is  used  for  washing  as  a  substitute  for  soap,  and  is  known  as 
the  "  soap  nut."     The  wood  is  good  but  is  not  much  used. 

Vitex  altissima  (Nemaliadugn). — A  good  timber  tree  used 
in  building  and  cart-making. 

Wehera  corymbosa  (Kommi). — A  large  shrub. 

Ixora parviflora  (Kiirivi). — A  shmb.  The  green  branches 
are  used  for  torches. 

Carissa  carandas  (Kalivi). — A  shrub.  Extremely  thorny. 
The  branchesare  used  for  fencing.     The  wood  is  used  for  fuel. 

Dodonaa  viscosa  (Bauddni). — A  shrub.  Its  branches  are 
used  to  support  the  earth  of  a  flat  roof. 

Marraya  Konigii  (Karepaku). — A  small  tree.  The  wood  is 
used  for  agricultural  implements.  The  leaves  are  used  to 
flavour  curries. 

The  deciduous  forests  are  very  open  and  have  a  luxuriant 
undergrowth  of  grass.  The  dominant  and  most  valuable  tree 
is  Pterocarpiis  santalinus  (Red  sanders — Chandaiiatn).  It  is  a 
very  pretty,  moderate-sized  tree,  with  an  upright  clean  bole  and 
rounded  crown.  The  wood  is  dark  claret  red  in  colour,  and  is 
extremely  valuable.  The  red  sanders,  or  "  redwood"  tree  as  it 
is  also  called,  deserves  more  than  passing  mention,  as  it  is 
said  that  there  is  probably  no  important  Indian  tree  the 
distribution  of  which  is  so  limited  in  range,  and  it  is  on  the 
encouragement  of  the  growth  of  this  tree  that  the  whole  work 
of  the  Forest  Department  is  concentrated  in  its  timber  opera- 
tions in  this  district.  It  is  confined  to  the  slopes  of  the  main 
hill  ranges  of  Cuddapah  and  to  the  adjoining  parts  of  Nellore 
and  Chittoor  districts. 

The  red  sanders  is  principally  used  nowadays  for  the 
construction  of  house-posts.  An  important  factor  in  their 
value  is  that  they  are  never  attacked  by  white-ants.  The 
best  posts  are  usually  bought  in  pairs  for  verandah  pillars  and 
are  often  sold  at  Rs.  40  to  Rs.  50  per  pair  of  I^  cubic  feet 
each,  or  in  other  words  at  Rs.  15  per  cubic  foot.  Such  posts 
are  known  as  'specials.'  The  dimensions  of  a  '  special '  are  15 
to  18  inches  in  mean  girth  and  12  feet  long.  This  represents 
the  measurement  of  the  heart-wood  after  removal  of  the  bark 
and  sap-wood.  A  tree  capable  of  yielding  a  '  special '  post 
measures  as  it  stands  in  the  forest  from  3  to  4  feet  in  girth  at  a 


The 

Red  Sander 

tree. 


Its  uses. 


Price  of  e£ 

ich 

Class  of  timber — 

RS.      A. 

p. 

Special 

10  15 

9 

1st  class 

5     0 

S 

2nd   ,, 

2  13 

ir 

3rd    .. 

2     2 

4 

4th    ,, 

I     5 

8 

FORESTS  95 

height  of  4/^  feet  above  the  grounil.   In  addition  to  the  required     CHAP.  V. 
dimensions  a   '  special '  post  must  be  without  defect  and  must  Character 
taper  uniformly  from  base  to  top.     Since  they  are  usually  sold       of  the 
in  pairs,   the  more  alike  it  is   possible  to  find  two  posts  the     Forests. 
greater  will  be  their  value.     A  defective  post,  which,  but  for  Redwood 
the  defect,  would  be  classed  as  a  *  special,'  falls  into  the  first  P"*^- 
class.     The  figures  in  the   margin  show  the  average  prices 

obtained  in  auction  for  posts 
of  each  class.  The  rates  ob- 
tained, it  will  be  observed,  fall 
very  rapidly.  The  charcoal 
obtained  from  this  tree  is  excel- 
lent, and  fuel  of  the  best  quality 
is  provided  by  the  branches 
of  badly  formed  and  diseased 
trees.  Small  pieces  of  the  heart-wood  are  carved  by  the 
Settigunta  doll-makers  into  dolls  or  idols,  which  are  in  great 
demand  among  pilgrims  to  Tirupati.  The  wood  is  also  used 
for  agricultural  implements  and  the  leaves  for  fodder. 

In  former  days  the  wood  of  the  red  sanders  tree  was  chiefly 
valued  for  its  red  colouring  principle,  "  santalin,"  which  is 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether  but  not  in  water.  It  was  very 
extensivel}^  used  as  a  dye,  and  large  quantities  of  redwood 
were  exported  to  Europe  for  this  purpose.  The  shipments 
continued  until  comparatively  recent  times,  when  this  natural 
dye  was  entirely  superseded  by  the  introduction  of  artificial 
substitutes.  The  earliest  account  of  this  trade  was  brought  to 
light  by  the  editor  of  '  Nature  '  (Calcutta),  who  published  an 
interesting  article  in  the  issue  of  May  4,  1911,  of  which  the 
following  are  extracts  : — 

"  During  the  preparation  for  the  press,  in  1895,  of  the  '  Diary 
and  Consultation  Book  of  the  Agent,  Governor  and  Council  of  Fort 
St.  George,'  for  1682-85,  Mr.  A.  T.  Pringle,  the  editor,  inquired  if  I 
.could  throw  any  light  on  the  origin  of  caliature,  a  name  for  redwood 
(Pterocarpus  santalinus),  frequently  referred  to  as  an  ardcle  of  trade 
in  Madras.  Presuming  the  name  to  be  that  of  a  port  on  the  east 
coast,  it  has  evidently  disappeared  from  nearly  all  the  available 
gazetteers  and  modern  atlases.  Inquiries  were  made  in  London, 
Holland  and  Java  with  no  results ;  but  recent  researches  in  the 
libraries  of  Calcutta  have  been  more  successful,  and  the  following 
notes  on  the  early  trade  of  the  country  form  an  interesting  chapter  on 
the  history  of  red  sanders  wood  : — 

"  To  Rumphius  belongs  the  credit  of  giving  the  origin  of  the 
term  '  caliture.'  In  'Herbarium  Amboiense,'  1750,  vol.  ii,  48,  he 
speaks  of  *  Santalum  rubrum  '  being    known    in    his    country    and    in 


96  .  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  V.    Europe,  and  as  coming  from  a  tree  from  which    '  h'gnum   calitour '   is 

Character  derived.     The  wood  is  very  hard,  solid,  and  dull  red,  which  he  says 

OF  THE       could  be  obtained  in  great  abundance  from  the  northern  parts  of  the 

Forests.     Coromandel  coast.     Various    kinds  of  furniture  were  made    of  it,  as 

benches  and  elegantly  carved  chairs.     Only  the  mature  trees  afforded 

good  sandal-wood,  as  was  shown  in  letters  sent  to  him  in  16S9.     The 

wood  was  also  used  as  a  tincture  in   the  arts,  and  the   Armenians   in 

Shiraz  and   Ispahan  added  it  to  distilled  spirit  of  wine  to  give  it  a 

beautiful    and   intense   red    colour.     The    identity   of    the   town    by 

Rumphius  I  will  quote  in  the  original  Latin  : — 

'Hisce  addo  ex  iisdem  litteris  locum  Caliatour  quondam 
dictum,  hodie  in  ora  Coromandelensi  hoc  nomine  non  amplius  esse 
notum,  sed  tempore  mutatum  fuisse  in  Krusjna-Patanum,  seu  Kisjna- 
Patan,  ita  ut  primi  nominis  memoria  inter  Europeos  tantum 
conservetur.' 

"The  town  of  Kistnapatam,  referred  to  in  this  paragraph  is  in 
the  Nellore  district  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  It  is  now  a  village, 
situated  at  14°  17'  north  latitude,  82  miles  north  of  Madras  ;  it  has  a 
fine  backwater  of  great  depth,  and  is  a  shelter  for  native  craft  during 
the  monsoon.  In  an  old  glossary  it  is  said  to  be  the  Greek  Sopatma, 
and  '  title  otherwise  Calitore.'  In  a  map  accompanying  '  A  True  and 
Exact  description  of  the  most  celebrated  East  India  Coasts  of  Malabar 
and  Coromandel '  (1672),  by  Philip  Baldeus,  Callerture  is  shown 
between  Armagon  and  Penne  (Penner  river).  In  a  map  of  the 
'  Peninsola  deli  India '  (dated  1683),  by  Giacomo  Cantelii  da  Vignola, 
a  Portuguese,  the  town  is  indicated  as  '  Caletur,'  It  is  evident  that 
while  the  town  was  known  to  foreigners  as  Calitore  or  Caletur,  it  was 
not  recognised  by  that  name  by  the  British  factors     . 

"The  earliest  English  factory  was  planted  in  1625  at  Masuli- 
patam,  where  trade  was  carried  on  with  varying  fortune  for  several 
years.  In  1628  the  agent,  pressed  by  the  Dutch  rivalry,  migrated 
southwards  to  Armegam.  In  1639  Armegam  in  its  turn  gave  way  to 
Fort  St.  George,  Madras,  which  in  1653  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an 
independent  presidency.  Between  this  young  growing  factory  and  the 
Court  of  the  Honorable  East  India  Company  there  was  considerable 
correspondence,  and  interesting  extracts  are  made  in  the  Diary  and 
Consultation  Book  of  the  Agent  and  Governor.  In  their  despatch 
dated  February  8,  1681,  the  Court  wrote  as  follows  : — 

'  xA.nd  we  do  further  order  that  you  make  the  like  provision  of 
300  tons  redwood  for  our  next  year's  shipping.  The  Dutch  called 
this  redwood  by  the  name  of  Calliature  wood,  and  we  do  p  the 
Nathaniell  and  Williamson  send  a  pattern  thereof  which  came  from 
India,  We  are  informed  that  it  costs  about  2^  Pag°  p  candy,  they  are 
usually  in  pieces  of  about  3  yards  long  but  you  may  have  it  sawed 
into    pieces  of  about  2  feet  more  or  less  as   the  Commanders  shall 


FORESTS 


97 


desire  for  conveniency,  it  being  to  be  ground  to  powder  here  and  used 
in  dyeing.' 

"  Contracts  for  the  supply  of  the  wood  were  negotiated  by 
the  Governor,  and  the  question  of  advances  was  settled  with  mer- 
chants. In  September  1682,  the  following  entry  in  the  Diary 
occurs  : — '  The  Calliature  or  Redwood  merchants  having  made  a 
contract  with  ye  Agent,  etc.,  for-candy  of  redwood,  declared  that  with- 
out they  might  have  half  the  money  before  hand  they  could  not 
comply  with  their  contract  w^''  upon  their  promise  of  giving  security 
was  granted  them.' 

"  Redwood  was  frequently  used  as  ballast  in  homeguing 
ships.  A  specific  case  is  recorded  in  the  Diary  for  1682  : — '  Captain 
Willshaw  of  the  Resolution  complained  that  he  would  not  be  able  to 
ride  out  ye  storm  without  sufficient  Quintelage  (ballast)  therefor 
ordered  that  the  warehousekeeper  doe  lade  on  board  him  100  :  Tonns 
saltpetre  and  what  Calliature  wood  can  be  got  to  stiffen  his  ship  and 
inable  him  the  better  to  ride  out  ye  storm.'     .     .     . 

"In  1685  as  much  as  1,337  pagodas  were  paid  to  the  local 
redwood  merchants  in  7  instalments  during  the  year.  Calculating  the 
pagoda  at  g^.,  this  amounts  to  ^605,  This,  however,  indicates  only 
a  portion  of  the  trade  for  the  year. 

"Reference  to  'The  Private  Diary  of  Ananda  Ranga  Pillai 
from  1736  to  1761  '  proves  that  the  trade  in  red  sanders  wood  was 
still  brisk.  In  1753  the  ship  '  Fleury '  sailed  for  France  with  1,000 
candies  (candy  =  500  lbs.)  and  the  '  Phenix  '  with  2,000  candies  of  red- 
wood. It  might  be  mentioned  that  the  '  James  and  Mary,'  that  gave 
its  name  to  the  dreaded  sandbank  in  the  Hughly,  and  was  wrecked  on 
September  24,  1694,  carried  a  cargo  of  redwood   taken  up  at  Madras. 

"  In  the  '  Letters  received  by  the  East  India  Company  from 
its  Servant  in  the  East,  1602-1617,'  there  are  numerous  references  to 
the  various  kinds  of  sanders  wood,  but  they  are  easily  distinguished 
The  red  sanders  wood  always  came  from  the  Madras  coast,  xnd  was 
sent  to  Europe  for  dyeing  purposes.     .     .     ." 

Further  particulars  about  the  red  sanders  are  given  by  the 
District  Forest  Officer  1  as  follows  :  "  It  flowers  from  April  to 
June,  seeding  the  following  February  and  March.  The  seed- 
lings die  off  annually  during  the  hot  weather,  while  the  root 
system  increases  until  the  shoots  are  large  and  strong  enough 
to  resist  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  at  times  also  fire.  It  prefers 
the  eastern  aspect  of  stony  hills  and  is  to  be  found  at  altitudes 
between  900  and  2,000  feet.  It  forms  the  greater  percentage 
of  the  growing  stock  on  the  lower  slopes,  where  it  is  in  places 

1  Mr.  T.  A.  Whitehead,  who  has  furnished  all  the  material  for  this  chapter. 
Other  quotations  ia  this  chapter,  when  no  authority  is  mentioned,  are  from 
Mr.  Whitehead's  note. 


CHAP.   V. 
Character 

OF  THE 

Forests. 


98 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  V, 

Character 

OF  THE 

Forests. 


found  pure.  As  the  altitude  increases  the  percentage  of  red 
Sanders  decreases,  but  the  quality  improves.  The  largest  and 
best  trees  are  to  be  found  in  the  upper  limit  of  the  red  sanders 
zone."  Owing  to  its  valuable  properties  and  the  fact  that  it 
received  no  protection  in  the  past,  the  drain  upon  the  forests 
of  the  district  "has,"  says  the  District  Forest  Officer  "been 
enormous  and  has  continued  until  quite  recent  times.  Gamble 
in  his  '  Manual  of  Indian  Timbers'  records:  'In  the  five  years 
ending  with  1882-83,  12,782  tons  were  exported  to  the  United 
Kingdom,  I,ll6  tons  to  France,  and  1,687  tons  to  other  Indian 
and  Ceylon  ports,  the  whole  valued  at  five  and  a  half  lakhs  of 
rupees.'  Not  only  the  stems  and  branches  but  also  the  roots 
were  extracted,  and  it  is  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  tree 
has  survived  total  extermination.  The  unmerciful  treatment 
meted  out  to  it  in  the  past  is  apparent  from  the  present 
degenerated  state  of  the  forest.  A  mature  red  sanders  tree  is 
difficult  to  find,  a  large  proportion  of  the  growth  is  in  a  pole 
stage  and  a  great  many  trees  have  been  mutilated  by  fire  and 
man.  It,  however,  reproduces  itself  vigorously  in  coppice,  by 
suckers  and  from  seed,  and  to  this  innate  vigour  it  owes  its 
existence.  A  local  tradition  maintains  that  a  red  sanders  tree, 
after  attaining  a  girth  of  40  inches  becomes  rotten  at  the  heart. 
This  no  doubt  is  at  present  true,  but  it  is  not  due  to  old  age 
and  over-maturity  as  is  generally  supposed.  It  is,  I  believe, 
entirely  due  to  injuries  received  during  the  period  of  its  life, 
resulting  from  repeated  scorching.  There  are  two  or  three 
trees  in  the  Kodur  red  sanders  plantation  which  are  now  over 
50  inches  in  girth  and  which  are  still  quite  sound.  No  fire 
has  occurred  in  this  plantation  since  its  formation  in  1865. 
Another  tradition  maintains  that  there  are  two  distinct 
varieties  of  red  sanders  trees.  One  variety  which  has  a  com- 
paratively smooth  bark  and  a  light  heart-wood  is  known  as 
the  '  female,'  the  other  with  the  rougher  bark  and  darker  heart- 
wood  as  the 'male.'  Botanically  there  is  no  difference,  and 
the  variety  is  not  due  to  a  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  soil 
since  the  two  kinds  are  found  mixed.  The  contention  that 
the  smooth-barked  tree  generally  has  a  lighter  coloured  heart- 
wood  appears  to  be  true.  The  scientific  explanation  is  still 
to  be  discovered. 

"  A  seedling  commences  to  form  heart-wood  at  the  age  of 
about  18  years  or  when  it  has  attained  a  girth  of  6  to  9 
inches  at  breast  height,  while  a  coppice  shoot  shows  signs  of 
forming  heart-wood  at  the  age  of  15  years  or  when  it  has 
attained  a  girth  of  9  to  15  inches.  Pseudo-heart-wood  or  a 
premature  deposit  of  the  red  colouring  principle  '  santalin  '  is 


FORESTS  99 

found  around  natural  wounds  and  artificial  injuries.     A  red  CHAP.  V. 
Sanders  tree  of  70  to  80  years  of  age,  which  as  a  rule  averages  character 
4  feet  in  girth  at  breast  height,  may  be  said  to  have  attained      of  the 
an  exploitable  age  or,  in  other  words,  an  age  at  which  it  is     ^'orests. 
capable  of  yielding  a  '  special '  post."  

The  general  character  of  the  growth  on  the  five  main  blocks  ""™"^' 
in  the  district  may  accordingly  be  summarised  as  follows: — 
First  come  "  the  fuel  forests  along  the  foot  of  the  hills.  These 
are  as  a  rule  overgrazed  and  degraded.  Along  the  outer 
boundaries  the  growth  often  consists  chiefly  of  thorns  which 
gradually  disappear  and  give  place  to  more  valuable  growth  as 
we  penetrate  deeper  in  towards  the  hills.  The  species  found 
in  the  fuel  forests  are : — Hardwickia  binata,  Anogeissus  lati- 
folia,  Albizzia  odoratissima  and  lebbek,  Eleodendron  glaucum, 
Buchanania  latifolia,  Sapindus  emarginatus,  Canthium  didy- 
mum,  Mimusops  hexandra  and  elengi,  Terminalia  chebula 
and  tomentosa,  Pterospermum  suberifolium,  Odina  wodier, 
Atlantia  monoph3dla,  Albizzia  amara,  Memecylon  angusti- 
folium,  Adina  cordifolia.  Cassia  fistula.  Gardenia  turgida. 
Gardenia  gummifera,  Vitex  pubescens,  Strychnos  nux-vomica, 
Diospyros  chloroxylon,  Butea  frondosa,  Ixora  parviflora,  Shorea 
tumbuggaia,  Gelonium  lanceolatum,  Hemicyclia  sepiaria  and 
Maba  buxifolia." 

Next,  at  a  greater  elevation,  occurs  the  red  sanders  forest, 
to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made.  "  Important  timber 
trees  with  which  the  red  sanders  is  generally  found  mixed  in 
various  proportions  are,  in  the  lower  elevations,  Anogeissus 
latifolia  and,  at  a  higher  altitude,  Terminalia  tomentosa, 
Chloroxylon  swietenia,  Buchanania  latifolia,  Diospyros 
ebenum,  Shorea  tumbuggaia  and  talura  and  Anogeissus 
latifolia.  The  red  sanders  belt  is  irregularly  cut  up  by  the  ever- 
green growth  along  stream  beds.  In  parts  within  its  zone  it 
entirely  disappears,  Anogeissus  latifolia  being  as  a  rule  found 
in  its  place. 

"  Finally,  above  the  red  sanders  belt  the  predominating 
species  is  Eugenia  alternifolia,  which  is  found  pure  in  large 
patches  especially  on  the  plateaux.  It  is  associated  with 
Terminalia  tomentosa,  Anogeissus  latifolia  and  Chloroxylon 
swietenia  in  the  lower  elevations  and  with  Terminalia  pallida 
and  chebula  and  Shorea  tumbuggaia  and  talura  in  the  higher 
elevations.  The  ridges  above  the  plateaux  mostly  support 
Shorea  tumbuggaia,  with  Eugenia  alternifolia  and  Gardenias 
as  auxiliaries  and  wild  date  and  cycads  as  under-growth. 

"  This  may  be  said  to  be  more  or  less  true  of  all  the  five 
large  blocks,  but  the  three   distinct  belts  as  described  above 


100 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  V. 
Character 

OF  THE 

Forests. 

Conser- 
vancy. 

Prior  to  the 
Madras 
Forest  Act 
of  1882. 


are  most  marked  in  the  Seshachalam,  Palkonda  and  Lanka- 
malai  hills.  In  the  Veligonda  and  Nallamalai  hills  the  red 
Sanders  is  not  nearly  so  common.  Jn  the  northern  portion  of 
the  Veligonda  range,  i.e.,  in  the  Badvel  taluk,  the  fuel  forests 
at  the  foot  of  the  hills  sometimes  give  place  to  a  very  fine 
pure  Hardwickia  binata  forest  as  well  as  a  mixed  forest  of 
Anogeissus  latifolia  and  Hardwickia  binata." 

Conservancy  operations  were  first  begun  in  i860  and  were 
chiefly  confined  to  the  south-east  portion  of  the  district. 
From  a  report^  dated  January  25,  1877,  submitted  by  Colonel 
Beddome,  Conservator  of  Forests,  much  may  be  gleaned  of 
the  results  obtained  up  to  that  time  and  of  the  previous 
history  of  the  plantations  and  fuel  reserves  controlled  by  the 
department.     The  following  are  extracts  from  the  report : — 

"  Plantations. — These  are  five  in  number,  viz.,  the  red 
Sanders  plantation  at  Kodur  and  the  four  fuel  plantations 
at  Upparapalle,  PuUampet,  Reddipalle  and  Kamalapuram. 

"  T/ie  Red  Sanders  plantation. — This  is  close  to  the  railway  line 
near  the  Kodur  station ;  the  extent  is  50  acres,  surrounded 
by  a  ditch  and  aloe  fence ;  over  an  area  of  about  20  acres 
there  are  some  twelve  or  fifteen  thousand  red  sanders  trees 
growing  very  straight  and  well.  .  .  .  The  largest  tree 
now  measures  41  feet  2  inches  in  height  and  has  a  girth 
of  2/5^  inches,  but  many  others  are  nearly  as  large. 
The  rest  of  the  area  does  not  seem  adapted  for  the  growth  of 
red  sanders,  as  the  tree  has  failed  when  it  has  been  tried,  but 
almost  the  whole  of  this  has  been  planted  up  with  various 
other  trees.  .  .  .  The  plantation  was  commenced  in  1865  ; 
the  expenditure  up  to  date  has  been  Rs.  5,839;  receipts  nil; 
the  expenditure  is  now  limited  to  Rs.  8  per  mensem,  the  pay 
of  one  gardener 


"77/<?  Pullatnpet  fuel  plantation. —  Close  to  the  railway  line,  4/^ 
miles  from  Rajampet  railway  station.  This  is  an  area  of  402 
acres;     ....     Nurseries  commenced  in  1871,  planting  out 

in  1872  ;  it  was  intended  as  a  mixed  fuel  plantation 

As  far  as  it  has  gone  this  plantation  is  a  failure,  and  the 
planting  of  the  vaghi,  nim,  babul  and  other  trees,  hitherto 
attempted  at  great  expense  in  trenches  and  pits,  will  never 

pay. 

'' Reddipalle  fuel  plantation. — Commenced  in  1869-70;  924 
acres  fenced  in.  .  .  .  The  Babul  has  utterly  failed.  The 
other  trees  have  grown  fairly  in  some  instances,  but  are  not 
likely  to  pay  as  fuel.     .     .     . 

'   Contained  in  G.O.  No.  1974,  Revenue,  dated  13th  June  1877. 


FORESTS  lOI 

^^  Fuel  reserves. — There  are  seven  in  number     ....     all     CHAP,  V. 
situate  along  the  north-west  line  of  railway  between  Tirupati      Conser- 
and  Nandalur vanxy. 

"  Bdlapallc  No.  I  reserve. — Area  about  2,000  acres     ....  

taken  up  and  fenced  round  in  1867,  since  which  the  growth 
has  rapidly  improved.  .  ,  .  The  value  of  timber  on  the 
reserve  at  the  seigniorage  rate  is  about  Rs.  70,000." 

The  other  fuel  reserves  mentioned  by  Colonel  Beddomeare 
Balapalle  No.  2  (1871),  Vagatikona  (1874),  Kodur  (1871),  Thuna- 
konda  (1874),  Yerraguntakota  (1873)  'in^l  Gathala  (1874). 

In  their  order  on  this  report  the  Government  observe  that 
the  condition  of  the  fuel  reserves  is  more  satisfactory  than 
that  of  the  plantations. 

From  what  has  already  been  said  of  the  red  sanders  tree 
and  its  past  history  it  may  readily  be  inferred  that  the  forests 
of  Cuddapah  district  received  but  little  protection  prior  to  the 
passing  of  the  Madras  Forest  Act  of  1882,  and  that  operations 
were  mainly  directed  towards  the  realization  of  revenue.  It 
should,  however,  be  remembered  that  the  establishment  at  the 
disposal  of  the  department  during  these  years  was  so  small 
and  the  areas  under  its  control  so  extensive  that  no  scientific 
forest  work  could  be  attempted  with  any  hope  of  attaining 
many  successful  results. 

From  1882  to  1901,  some  improvement  took  place,  but  Subsequent 
timber,  fuel  and  minor  forest  produce  was  still  extracted  by  °P*^^^"^"s* 
contractors  for  the  department.  This,  of  course,  was  detri- 
mental to  the  forests  since  little  supervision  could  be 
exercised  by  the  department  over  the  contractors.  They  were 
permitted  to  work  over  extensive  areas  and  helped  themselves 
to  the  plums.  With  one  exception,  the  mistake  to  attempt 
to  deal  with  large  extents  of  forest  was  again  made,  the  Act  of 
1882  was  not  vigorously  enforced  and  the  deterioration  of  the 
forest  continued.  The  one  exception  is  to  be  found  near 
Balapalle  in  the  forests  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  railway 
line.  Here  an  attempt  to  work  the  area  systematically  for 
fuel  was  made  with  gratifying  results.  A  working  circle  was 
selected  in  the  forests  on  either  side  of  the  line  in  about  the 
year  1880.  The  two  working  circles  are  known  as  Balapalle 
East  and  West.  They  were  each  divided  into  thirty  coupes 
and  one  coupe  in  each  working  circle  was  worked  annually. 
The  fuel  extracted  was  sold  to  the  Railway  Company.  The 
first  rotation  in  both  the  working  circles  has  been  completed 
and  five  years  ago  the  second  rotation  was  begun.  The 
coupes  are  being  worked  under  the  '  coppice  with  standards' 
system.     Thirty  standards  per  acre  are  selected  and  marked 


io^ 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.    V. 

Conser- 
vancy. 


Recent 

Working 

Plans. 

Fuel. 


departmentally.  The  annual  coupe  (50  acres  to  150  acres)  is 
then  put  up  to  auction.  The  actual  felling  and  extraction  of 
the  fuel  and  such  small  timber  as  is  available,  is  done  by- 
contractors  under  departmental  supervision.  The  success  of 
operations  in  the  past  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  at  the 
present  day  {i.e.,  in  the  second  rotation)  an  average  of 
Rs.  12  to  Rs.  18  is  obtained  per  acre  for  coupes  which  were 
originally  felled  some  thirty  years  ago.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  these  working  circles  will  afford  a  perpetual  fuel  supply 
in  future. 

"There  are  one  or  two  small  plantations  in  the  Pullampet 
valley  which  were  planted  with  red  sanders  in  1865.  The 
most  important  and  most  successful  of  these  is  the  Kodur 
Red  sanders  plantation.  The  trees  here  are  now  48  years  of 
age  and  have  long  since  attained  their  full  height  growth. 
The  largest  tree  in  the  plantation  measures  4  feet  4  inches 
in  girth  at  breast  height  and  is  about  60  feet  high.  This 
is  probably  the  largest  red  sanders  tree  in  existence.  Some 
useful  work  was  also  done  in  the  North  division  in  planting 
palmyra  on  the  banks  of  the  Penner,  Papaghni  and  other 
rivers.  The  most  successful  of  these  is  the  Idupulapaya 
palmyra  plantation  which  in  the  near  future  will  become 
invaluable  in  the  supply  of  building  timber  to  this  part  of  the 
district  where  it  is  so  badly  needed. 

"  In    1908   the  following  batch  of    working  plans  for  the 
supply  of  fuel  was  sanctioned  : — 

Fuel  Working  Circles. 

East  Cuddapah  :  Balapalle  (East  and  West  series),  Kodiir  (East 
and  West  series),  Rajampet,  Pullampet,  Badvel  (East  and 
West  series),  Lankamalais,  Porumomilla  (North  and  South 
series),  Sancherla,  Nandalur  Vontimitta,  Palkonda  Bull- 
men,  Lankamalai  Bullmen,  Sidhout  and  Kanamalopalle. 

North  Cuddapah  :  Palkonda  (Maddimadugu  East  and  West 
and  Mamillapalle  series),  Lankamalais^  (Bainapalle  and 
Pattur)  and  Nallamalais^  (Dasari  palle  North,  East,  South 
and  West). 

"  The  '  coppice  with  standards '  system  for  these  fuel 
working  circles  has  been  prescribed.  The  coupes  were 
originally  worked  departmentally,  but  in  1912  the  work  of 
felling,  extraction  and  disposal  of  the  produce  was  handed 
over  to  contractors.  The  demarcation  of  the  coupes  and  the 
selection  and  marking  of  standards  still  remain  in    the  hands 


'  Also  timber  working  series. 


FORESTS 


103 


Recent 

Working 

Plans. 

Timber. 


of  the  department.     The  department  also  supervises  the  work     CHAP.  V 
of  the  contractors. 

"In  1909  a  timber  working  plan  for  the  Seshachalam 
hills  in  the  East  division  was  sanctioned.  An  attempt  to 
work  it  was  made  until  1912.  It  was  then  proved  to  be 
unworkable  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  carrying  out  its 
prescriptions  with  the  inadequate  staff  sanctioned.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  timber  fellings  conducted  under  this  working  plan 
unregulated  timber  fellings  were  carried  out  in  the  Veligondas, 
Palkonda,  Lankamalai  and  Nallamalai  hills.  Owing  to  the 
weakness  of  the  establishment,  inadequate  supervision  and 
the  excessive  extents  of  the  coupes  the  work  was  not  evenly 
distributed  over  the  whole  area.  The  fellings  degenerated 
into  the  extraction  of  only  the  best  trees  from  the  most  pro- 
mising and  accessible  localities.  Such  inadequately  con- 
trolled work  would  soon  ruin  any  forest.  The  fellings  were 
put  a  stop  to  in  the  years  1912  and  1913. 

"  Operations  for  the  supply  of  fuel  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  terai  forests.  With  but  one  or  two  exceptions  all  the 
fuel  working  circles  in  both  divisions  are  doing  well  and  the 
working  plans  at  present  require  no  revision.  The  '  coppice 
with  standards  '  system  continues  to  be  in  force. 

"Timber  compartments  were  without  exception  worked 
under  the  "  selection  "  system  in  the  past.  The  failure  of 
this  system  which  provides  for  the  removal  of  a  number  of 
trees  of  each  age  class  every  year,  was  due  not  so  much  to  the 
fact  that  it  was  inapplicable  to  this  class  of  forest  but  chiefly 
to  the  fact  that  the  prescriptions  of  the  working  plans  were 
never  conscientiously  enforced.  The  areas  allotted  for  annual 
treatment  were  far  too  large  (1,500  to  6,500  acres)  for  the 
executive  establishment  to  deal  with,  or  for  the  controlling 
staff  to  supervise.  The  result  might  perhaps  have  been  fore- 
seen. Each  compartment  had  been  estimated  to  yield  a  certain 
quantity  of  material.  The  quantity  was  extracted,  but  from 
only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  compartment ;  this  means 
that  the  small  portion  from  which  the  material  had  been 
extracted  was  hopelessly  overworked  while  the  greater  portion 
remained  untouched.  It  was  impossible  for  a  responsible 
officer,  in  addition  to  his  other  duties,  to  adequately  check  and 
supervise  the  work  in  these  enormous  timber  compartments. 
They  were  often  mismanaged  or  entirely  neglected  by  the 
irresponsible  executive  staff  who  knew  that  their  neglect  or 
dishonesty  would  probably  not  be  brought  to  light.  Even  had 
the  areas  been  satisfactorily  worked  a  rigid  protection  of 
them  after  treatment  would  have  been  impracticable.     In  the 


Work  in 
Progress. 

Fuel 
operations. 


Timber 
operations. 


104 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP,  V.  East  division  these  compartments  were  worked  departmentally 
Work  in  but  in  the  North  division  the  further  error  was  committed  in 
Progress,  the  last  year  or  two  of  handing  them  over  with  but  little 
restriction  to  contractors.  In  1912  unregulated  timber  extrac- 
tion in  the  East  division  was  stopped.  In  1913  the  old  system 
in  tracts  both  under  sanctioned  and  unregulated  working  was 
put  a  stop  to  throughout  the  district  and  a  new  system  was 
introduced.  Under  the  new  system  the  realization  of  revenue 
by  the  extraction  and  sale  of  timber-yielding  trees  is  not  the 
main  consideration.  It  provides  for  the  improvement  and 
subsequent  rigid  protection  of  areas  sufficiently  small  to 
ensure  detailed  work  and  thorough  supervision.  The  system 
was  primarily  devised  to  encourage  the  growth  and  to 
protect  the  existing  stock  of  sound  red  sanders  trees,  and 
work  is  therefore  confined  within  the  limits  of  the  red 
sanders  belt  or  zone.  Under  this  system  the  area  of  the 
annual  coupe  in  each  working  circle  is  at  present  limited  to 
about  100  acres,  and  with  the  object  of  producing  mature 
red  sanders  timber  the  rotation  has  been  fixed  at  seventy 
or  eighty  years,  so  that  each  working  circle  will  include  a 
block  of  red  sanders  forest  of  7,000  acres  to  8,000  acres.  It  is 
necessary  to  retain  and  protect  all  the  best  and  soundest  trees 
which  are  at  present  in  a  young  pole  stage,  and  to  cut  back, 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  re-growth  of  healthy  coppice 
shoots,  all  trees  which  have  been  pollarded,  injured  or 
damaged  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  crippled  for  the  production  of 
sound  and  valuable  timber.  The  trees  selected  for  retention 
are  marked  by  departmental  agency.  Each  tree  so  marked  is 
entered  in  a  register  with  its  girth  measurement.  The  coupe 
is  then  sold  in  auction  and  a  contractor  removes,  under 
detailed  departmental  supervision,  the  inferior  growth  which 
has  not  been  marked  for  retention.  While  the  coupe  is  being 
felled  over  by  the  contractor  a  stone  wall  3^  feet  in  height  is 
erected  by  departmental  agency  around  the  coupe  so  that 
when  the  work  of  felling  and  extraction  has  been  completed, 
the  ring  wall  is  also  completed.  By  this  means  the  sound 
trees  left  standing  and  the  re-growth  within  the  coupe  will  be 
protected  from  cattle  and  fire  and  it  is  hoped  will  also  arouse 
the  better  feelings  in  man.  Three  working  circles  in  the  East 
division  and  some  half  dozen  in  the  North  have  been  roughly 
located  and  the  first  coupes  demarcated  on  the  ground.  Work 
has  already  commenced  in  the  East  division  and  in  two  cases 
is  in  full  swing  in  the  first  coupe.  As  this  system  is  being 
introduced  in  the  red  sanders  areas  throughout  the  whole 
district  no  sound  timber  will,  except  illicitly,  be  extracted  from 


FORESTS 


105 


the  Cuddapah  forests  for  some  years  to  come.  It  has  already 
been  pointed  out  that  this  course  is  absolutely  necessary  on 
account  of  the  present  degenerated  state  of  the  forests. 

"Sandal  is  being  introduced  into  the  plateau  forests  at  an 
elevation  of  2,500  feet  and  above.  Small  areas  are  sown  and 
then  demarcated  with  narrow  lines  and  coupe  stones. 

"It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  three  classes  of  forest 
mentioned  above,  i.e.,  the  terai  fuel  forests,  the  red  sanders 
belt  and  the  plateau  forests  are  being  worked  for  the  pro- 
duction of  fuel,  timber  and  sandal  respectively. 

"  As  hitherto,  the  right  to  collect  minor  forest  produce  and 
bamboos  from  certain  blocks  of  forest  is  usually  auctioned, 
and  the  free  removal  of  grass  is  permitted  except  when  it  has 
a  market  value,  in  which  case  the  right  to  remove  it  is  leased 
by  Government. 

"Grazing  on  permit  is  allowed  in  all  reserves  except  in 
Ks.    plantations    and    worked    areas. 

Sheep         li  The  rates  at  which    permits  are 

Cow,  bull,  ass,  etc.  ...       3    jgsued  per  head   per    annum   are 

^"^^'°       ^    given  in  the  margin." 

Grazing  has  hitherto  been  permitted  in  the  valuable  hill 
forests  of  the  district,  and  the  cattle  have  been  penned  in 
long  established  "  pentas  "  or  cattle  kraals,  which  are  situated 
in  the  heart  of  the  forests.  A  large  proportion  of  these  cattle 
come  from  Nellore,  but  the  valuable  stock  of  that  district  is 
not  sent  over,  and  the  animals  that  are  grazed  are  usually 
of  a  very  inferior  class.  Considerable  damage  has  been  done 
to  the  forests  by  these  annual  incursions  of  cattle,  for  not  only 
have  the  red  sanders  and  all  other  valuable  timber  disappeared 
from  the  sites  of  the  "pentas  "  but  the  forest  in  the  vicinity 
has  suffered  from  theft,  mutilation  and  fire  caused  by  the 
graziers.  Under  these  circumstances  the  hill  forests  of 
Cuddapah  are  being  gradually  closed  to  grazing  and  the  cattle 
that  resort  to  them  are  being  provided  for  elsewhere.  Goat- 
browsing  was  hitherto  permitted  in  certain  selected  reserves. 
An  attempt  has  recently  been  made  gradually  to  exclude  the 
goat  from  all  reserves,  and  Government  sanction  has  been 
obtained  to  close  permanently  the  few  blocks  that  still  remain 
open  to  the  goat  from  1st  July  I9I4- 

"Theft  of  timber  and  fuel  and  offences  of  illicit  goat- 
browsing  have  made  the  proper  protection  of  the  reserves 
extremely  difficult.  Settigunta  is  the  home  of  the  doll-makers. 
These  dolls  are  made  out  of  red  sanders  timber  and  the  forests 
in  this  locality  have  suffered  and  are  still  suffering  from  the 
raids    made    upon     them    by    these    people.     The    so-called 

14 


CHAP.  V. 

Work  in 
Progress. 

Sandal, 
sowing. 


Minor  forest 
produce. 


Grazing 
and  goat- 
browsing. 


Forest 
oflences. 


io6 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  V. 

Work  in 
Progress. 


Fire- 
protection. 


Stream- 
bunding. 


Cart-tracks 
and  biidle- 
paths. 


"  BuUman,"  a  low  caste  Muhammadan  timber  thief,  who  makes 
use  of  his  bull  for  the  extraction  of  illicitly  felled  timber  and 
fuel,  has  been  very  troublesome  in  the  past.  His  sphere  of 
operations  has  been  confined  to  the  Palkonda  and  Lankamalai 
hills.  It  was  chiefly  to  keep  him  out  of  mischief  and  to 
afford  him  a  chance  of  obtaining  an  honest  livelihood  that  the 
Palkonda  and  Lankamalai  Bullmen  fuel  working  plans  were 
introduced.  He  was  employed  by  the  department  to  extract 
the  fuel  felled  departmentally  on  the  hill  slopes,  and  is  now 
being  employed  by  the  contractors  who  are  working  the 
coupes  under  departmental  supervision.  Every  village  along 
the  foot  of  the  Nallamalai  hills  can  boast  of  gangs  or  portions 
of  gangs  of  men  that  have  for  a  great  many  years  earned  a 
livelihood  by  the  sale  of  stolen  timber.  Vanipenta  harbours 
a  crowd  of  brass-workers.  These  men  required  first-class 
charcoal  with  which  to  feed  their  furnaces  and  have  for 
many  years  helped  themselves  to  red  sanders  and  Hardwickia 
binata  fuel  from  the  adjoining  reserves  to  satisfy  their 
demands. 

"  Though  determined  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  past 
to  put  a  stop  to  the  destruction  of  reserves,  results  so  far  show 
that  still  more  thorough  steps  must  be  taken  for  the  protection 
of  the  forests  against  timber  theft.  With  this  view  the 
Government  have  recently  sanctioned  the  introduction  of  a 
revised  set  of  timber  transit  rules.  They  are  considerably 
stricter  than  the  old  rules,  but  no  honest  man  need  fear  them. 
The  existence  of  a  large  number  of  shrotriem  forests  wedged 
into  the  large  blocks  of  Government  reserves  had  made 
protection  of  the  latter  extremely  difficult  in  the  past.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  present  rules,  if  properly  and  fairly  enforced, 
will  largely  mitigate  this  evil. 

"A  new  work  of  fire  lines  over  the  more  important  blocks 
is,  as  elsewhere,  the  system  of  protection  adopted.  So  long 
as  grazing  is  permitted  within  the  reserves  and  especially 
within  large  blocks  of  hill  forest  absolute  and  permanent 
protection  against  fire  cannot  be  expected.  This  is  an 
additional  argument  for  the  exclusion  of  foreign  cattle. 

"  The  upper  affluents  of  the  more  important  forest  streams 
are  being  bunded  with  small  dams  from  their  sources 
downwards  in  order  to  hold  up  the  water  for  a  greater  number 
of  days  after  heavy  rainfall  and  to  prevent  torrents  and  rapid 
erosion. 

"A  network  of  cart-tracks  and  bridle-paths  is  being  con- 
structed in  the  large  Seshachalam,  Palkonda,  Lankamalai  and 
Nallamalai  blocks  in  order  to  open  up  the  forests  and  facilitate 


FORESTS  107 

work  under  the  new  system  described  above  under  '  Timber  cHAP  V 
operations.'  All  bridle-paths  are  being  aligned  at  a  gradient  "work  in 
not  steeper  than  i  in  20  so  as  to  facilitate  their  conversion  into  'progress. 
cart-tracks  when  necessity  arises.  

"A  permanent  form  of  demarcation  for  reserves  was  Demarca- 
commenced  in  1913  and  will  be  continued  until  all  reserves  ^'*^°" 
have  been  completely  and  accurately  demarcated.  The 
particular  form  adopted  is  : — Planting  numbered  stone  pillars 
at  all  turns,  building  a  cairn  around  each  pillar  and  placing  a 
row  of  large  stones  from  cairn  to  cairn  along  the  outer  edge 
of  the  cleared  12  feet  boundary  line.  In  cases  where  the 
reserve  line  at  present  in  existence  was  wrongly  cut,  the  errors 
are  being  rectified  as  the  permanent  demarcation  proceeds. 
It  will  tajce  many  years  to  complete  the  work. 

"With  the   exception    of   the  sowing  of   sandal    seed    in   Planting  and 
a    few   selected   areas   in    the  plateau   forests   no   sowing  or  ^^^^''"g- 
planting   is   being   done.     It   is   considered   more    important 
to  protect  and  revive  the  forest  at  present  in  existence  than  to 
attempt  to  create  more  forest  when  that  which  exists'is  not 
yet  adequately  controlled." 


I08  CUDDAPAH 

CHAPTER  VI. 
OCCUPATION  AND  TRADE. 


Agriculture.  Arts  and  Industries — Textile— Condition  of 
weavers — Cotton-weaving — Silk-weaving — Blankets  and  rugs — 
Cotton  printing  and  dyeing — Shoe-making — Wood — Metal 
— Stone — Other  occupations.  Factories.  Trade — Exports 
and  imports.  Weights  and  Measures — Table  of  weights — 
Grain  measures — Liquid  measures — Lineal  measures — Measures 
of  time. 

CHAP.  VL  While  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits  constitute  the 
Agricul-  livelihood  of  about  five-sevenths  of  the  population  of  Cud- 
ture.  dapah  district,  there  still  remains  an  appreciable  proportion 
which  may  be  termed  partially  agriculturist.  Under  this  head 
must  be  included  the  village  artizans  who  customarily  hold 
land  on  favourable  tenure  in  consideration  of  their  services  to 
the  community.  The  last  census  returns  also  show  that  of 
those  engaged  in  the  textile  industry  some  9  per  cent,  repre- 
senting probably  the  Mala  community  who  are  agricultural 
labourers  as  well  as  weavers  of  coarse  cloths,  rely  partly  on 
agriculture  for  their  living.  In  a  wider  sense  the  welfare  of 
nearly  the  entire  population  is  dependent  upon  agriculture, 
for  the  industries  mainly  followed  in  the  district  deal  with  the 
products  of  the  earth  in  their  natural  state,  obtained  locally. 
The  market  for  the  finished  article  is  also  no  less  restricted. 
The  effect  of  a  bad  season  on  the  industrial  worker  is  there- 
fore twofold,  in  that  it  raises  the  price  of  raw  material  and 
reduces  the  purchasing  power  of  the  agriculturists,  who  are 
his  principal  customers. 
Arts  and  Excluding  agriculture,  weaving  provides  employment  to   a 

Industries,  larger  proportion  of  the  population  of  the  district  than  any 
Textile.  Other  industry.     The  castes  of  weavers  who  carry  on  their 

hereditary  occupation  in  this  district  are  the  Togatas,  Sales 
and  Devangas,  in  the  order  of  their  numerical  importance. 
Many  Muhammadans  are  also  engaged  in  this  industry  and, 
as  already  mentioned,  Malas  are  employed,  especially  in  the 
black  cotton  country,  in  the  weaving  of  coarse  fabrics.  The 
industry  is  carried  on  entirely  with  hand-looms.  In  the  year 
1900  there  were  only  three  districts  in  the  Presidency  contain- 
ing a  larger  number  of  hand-looms  than  Cuddapah,  in  which 
there  were    11,500.     The  area  of  the  district  has  been   largely 


OCCUPATION  AND  TRADE  109 

reduced  since  then,  but  it  is  not  thought  probable  that  there  CHAP.  VI. 
has  been  much  change  in  the  number  of  hand-looms  in  the  Arts  and 
whole  Presidency  since  that  date.  Industries. 

Though  it  is  often  assumed  that  the  condition  of  the  hand-  Condition  of 
loom  weavers  has  steadily  deteriorated  owing  to  the  effect  weavers, 
of  competition,  the  conclusion  drawn  from  certain  facts  and 
figures  recorded  at  the  last  census  is  that  on  the  whole  the 
industry  is  holding  its  own,  and  that  the  general  increase  in 
prosperity  is  leading  to  an  increased  demand  for  its  finer 
products.  The  weavers  have  on  the  whole  responded  to  the 
stress  of  competition  and  work  harder  nowadays,  turning  out 
a  larger  amount  of  finished  goods  than  was  formerly  the  case. 
The  cleverest  weavers  are  to  be  found  in  Pullampet  taluk, 
and  their  high  class  products  command  very  good  prices. 
It  is  here  that  the  use  of  the  fly-shuttle  slay  has  principally 
developed,  by  which  the  output  of  each  loom  is  said  to  be 
increased  on  the  average  by  not  less  than  50  per  cent.  On 
the  other  hand  less  skilful  workers  in  the  backward  parts  of 
the  district  have  failed  to  hold  their  own,  as  the  demand  for 
their  coarse  goods  has  steadily  decreased  with  the  raising  of 
the  standard  of  comfort.  With  this  contraction  of  the  market 
and  the  general  increase  in  the  cost  of  living  it  is  doubtful 
whether  a  family  that  depended  entirely  on  the  weaving  of 
coarse  country  cloths  could  maintain  itself  in  these  days  :  in 
fact,  they  invariably  supplement  their  earnings  by  other 
labour. 

Formerly  in  the  black  cotton  country  every  process  from  Cotton 
the  picking  of  the  cotton  to  the  manufacture  of  his  dress  ^^^a^'^g- 
was  carried  out  under  the  eye  of  the  Kapu  himself,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  its  cleaning  by  the  Dudekula  caste 
of  professional  cotton-cleaners.  The  ginning,  on  which  his 
womenfolk  were  employed,  was  performed  by  propelling 
stone  rollers  over  the  cotton  up  and  down  the  verandah  of  his 
house.  He  would  also  spin  the  yarn  at  home  and  supply  it  to 
the  weavers  to  make  up  into  such  cloths  as  he  and  his  family 
required.  Nowadays  very  little  yarn  is  homespun  and  if  the 
ryot  still  patronises  home-made  stuffs  he  buys  his  yarn  in  the 
bazaars  of  the  bigger  villages  and  towns  which  get  their 
supply  from  the  spinning  mills  in  Madras  and  elsewhere- 
Meanwhile  the  cotton  that  he  grows  finds  a  ready  market 
in  the  ginning  and  pressing  factories  of  Tadpatri  and 
Proddatur.  It  is  the  country  cloths  worn  by  the  women  of  the 
black  cotton  country  that  are  now  mostly  manufactured  by 
the  Malas.  They  are  sometimes  coloured,  but  generally  white 
with  red  or  black   borders.     The  thread  for  these  cloths    is 


no 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.    VI. 

Arts   and 
Industries. 


Silk-weaving. 


Blaukets 
and  rugs. 


bought  ready  dyed.  In  other  parts  of  the  district  softer 
fabrics  are  worn,  and  these  are  woven  by  the  Togatas  and 
Sales,  who  use  the  best  imported  yarn.  The  Devangas  are 
numerically  unimportant.  These  weaving  castes  are  found 
throughout  the  district  but  are  most  numerous  in  Proddatur 
and  Pullampet  taluks.  Red  is  the  prevailing  colour  of  the 
saris  and  ravikas  which  they  make,  and  they  occasionally  dye 
the  thread  themselves.  They  also  weave  good  white  turbans 
and  white  or  coloured  upper  cloths  for  men,  for  the  latter 
of  which  a  common  pattern  is  red  chequered  with  narrow 
white  lines-  Whether  white  or  coloured,  the  ends  of  the  cloths 
are  often  embroidered  with  gold  or  silver  thread.  Some 
of  the  best  embroidery  of  this  kind  is  done  at  Pullampet. 

The  best  silk-weaving  in  the  district  is  done  at  Madha- 
varam  in  Sidhout  taluk,  a  village  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Cheyyer  and  Penner  rivers,  and  at  Uppalur  in  the  taluk  of 
Kamalapuram.  The  weavers  of  the  latter  village  are  Togatas, 
and  some  account  of  their  work  is  given  below  in  the  gazetteer. 
The  inhabitants  of  Madhavaram  number  less  than  two 
thousand,  and  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  them  are  Padma  Sales. 
They  make  coloured  saris  of  silk,  the  colours,  usually  red  and 
black,  being  in  alternate  squares,  and  silk  upper  cloths  for 
men,  which  if  not  white  are  coloured  pink,  pale  blue  or  red, 
the  weavers  usually  dyeing  the  thread  themselves.  These  are 
generally  more  richly  embroidered  than  the  cotton  variety. 
The  best  silk  cloths  cost  between  Rs.  100  and  150.  These 
weavers  also  make  saris  and  ravikas  of  mixed  silk  and  cotton, 
which,  from  the  origin  of  the  pattern,  are  known  as  Kornad 
cloths.  A  sari  of  this  kind  costs  about  Rs.  15  and  is  of  the 
same  colour  and  design  as  the  silk,  but  the  squares  are 
smaller.  The  weavers  of  Madhavaram  are,  as  elsewhere, 
largely  in  the  hands  of  capitalists  who  advance  them  money 
or  grain  and  supply  them  with  the  materials  of  their  industry, 
paying  them  piece-work  wages  for  the  cloths  they  turn  out. 
One  of  these  merchants,  who  has  from  time  to  time  exhibited 
samples  of  the  excellent  workmanship  of  the  Madhavaram 
weavers,  obtained  a  silyer  and  a  bronze  medal  at  the  Industrial 
and  Arts  Exhibition  in  Madras  in  1903  for  embroidery  and 
two  silver  medals  from  the  Industrial  and  Arts  Exhibition  of 
Mysore  in  1911  for  silk  work. 

Rough  blankets  which  are  made  from  the  wool  of  the 
small  black  and  white  sheep  found  in  Rayachoti  taluk  are 
woven  by  Kurubas.  This  breed  of  sheep  is  much  commoner 
in  the  higher  altitudes  of  the  plateau,  and  the  industry 
employs  very  few  people  in  this  district,  where  the  blankets 


OCCUPATION  AND  TRADE  III 

woven  are  only  sufficient  for  local  requirements.     In  Pulivendla   CHAP.    VI. 
taluk  the  same  shepherd  caste  of  Kurubas  make  coarse  hair    Arts  and 
rugs  from  the  fleeces  of  the  other  kinds  of  sheep.     These  rugs,  Industries. 
which  the  Kurubas  dye  red,  are   brought  in   large  quantities 
from  Parnapalle  and  other  places  in  the  west  of  the  taluk   to 
the  weekly  fair  at  Pulivendla. 

White  cloths   intended   for  sdris  or   children's  skirts   are   Cotton 
sometimes  printed   in  black  or  red  colours   by  hand  by  the   P'^'"''ng. 

■»  T         .  1  •  ^  r    T-i  -  -n  •  <-r^i  .  .       3>n(l  dyeing. 

Marathi  caste  of  Rangarazus  or  Rangans.  The  prmting  is 
effected  by  stamping  the  cloth  with  wooden  blocks  engraved 
with  various  floral  designs.  5c7mofthis  kind  are  dyed  red 
or  black  to  a  length  of  about  two  feet  at  each  end.  The 
Rangaris  are  said  to  be  skilful  dyers,  and  the  colours  do  not 
easily  fade. 

Recent  statistics  show  that  "  Industries  of  dress  and  the  Shoe-making, 
toilet"  afford  employment  to  nearly  as  many  persons  in  the 
district  as  do  weaving  and  its  allied  occupations.  Under  this 
comprehensive  head  are  included  barbers  and  washermen, 
cleaners  and  dyers,  who  in  the  aggregate  number  more  than 
half  of  the  total,  but  these  are  not  of  exceptional  numerical 
importance  in  proportion  to  the  population  of  the  district. 
On  the  other  hand  the  number  of  those  engaged  in  the 
making  of  shoes,  boots  and  sandals  shows  that  this  is  one  of  the 
more  important  industries  of  the  district.  It  is  chiefly  carried 
on  by  Muhammadans,  and  the  largest  number  of  workers 
are  found  at  Badvel  and  Cuddapah.  There  are  only  two 
districts  in  the  Presidency,  namely,  Guntur  and  Nellore,  where 
the  proportion  of  shoe-makers  to  the  total  population  is  so 
high.  From  the  large  development  of  the  industry  at  Badvel 
it  seems  probable  that  it  was  to  a  great  extent  introduced 
from  Nellore. 

Under  the  major  head  of  "  workers  in  wood  "  the  latest  Wood, 
census  tables  include  basket-makers,  of  whom  we  find  the 
proportion  in  Cuddapah  district  exceeds  that  for  the  Presidency 
and  most  other  districts.  The  followers  of  this  industry  are 
mostly  to  be  found  in  villages  adjoining  the  forests  at  the  foot 
of  the  Seshachalams  in  Pullampet  and  Rayachoti  taluks  and 
also  include  Yerukulas  and  other  wandering  tribes.  Fewer  in 
number  but  of  more  importance  are  the  carpenters,  joiners 
and  turners  who  utilize  the  abundant  material  afforded  by 
the  forests  of  the  district  for  making  agricultural  implements, 
cabinets  and  the  different  kinds  of  household  furniture  for 
which  there  is  a  steadily  increasing  demand.  At  Settigunta, 
in  the  south  of  Pullampet  taluk,  there  are  some  clever  wood 
carvers  who  specialize  in  the  mythological  figures,  generally 


Metal. 


112  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  VI.  made  of  redwood,  which  are  sold  as  votive  emblems  to 
Arts  and     pilgrims  who  visit  the  sacred  hill  of  Tirupati. 

Industries.  At  Vanipenta  in  Proddatur  taluk,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Nallamalais,  workers  in  brass,  copper  and  bell-metal  have 
attained  considerable  reputation.  The  industry,  if  not  con- 
fined to  this  village,  is  at  any  rate  very  highly  localized.  The 
workers  are  of  various  castes  and  include  a  large  number  of 
Musalmans.  They  make  cattle-bells,  rings,  copper  pots, 
drinking  vessels  of  copper  and  brass  and  various  household 
utensils.  As  in  the  case  of  the  weavers  of  Madhavaram,  this 
industry  is  financed  by  capitalists  who  supply  the  workers 
with  metal  and  give  them  advances,  paying  them  for  their 
labour.  It  is  said  that  the  industry  has  suffered  of  late  years 
by  competition  with  vessels  of  foreign  make  and  materials 
such  as  aluminium  and  german  silver.  Formerly  these  metal- 
workers consistently  drew  on  the  neighbouring  reserved 
forests  for  the  means  of  making  the  charcoal  which  their 
process  of  manufacture  renders  necessary  in  large  quantities, 
and  it  is  possible  that  the  improved  protection  of  the  forests 
has  added  to  their  difficulties. 

Stone.  The  stone-carving  of  many  modern  temples  in  the  district 

has  been  carried  out  by  some  expert  sculptors  who  call 
themselves  Silpis,  but  are  locally  known  as  the  Gumpramanu- 
dinne  people,  from  the  name  of  their  village  in  the  Sirvel 
taluk  of  Kurnool  district.  A  Muhammadan  of  Peddamudiyam 
in  Jammalamadugu  taluk  acquired  the  art  of  stone-carving 
from  these  people  and  transmitted  the  knowledge  to  his  son. 
With  this  solitary  exception  Cuddapah  district  does  not 
appear  to  contain  any  professional  stone-carvers,  though  in 
several  places  Balijas  and  Muhammadans  can  carve  ordinary 
rough  figures  on  stone.  Workers  in  stone  claim  our  notice 
rather  on  account  of  the  large  number  of  unskilled  labourers 
who  obtain  employment  by  quarrying  the  famous  Cuddapah 
slabs.  These  are  obtained  from  the  sub-crystalline  limestone 
of  the  Cuddapah  rocks  and  are  so  excellently  adapted  for 
building  purposes  that  they  are  exported  to  various  parts  of 
the  Presidency.  The  best  kind  is  described  as  a  regular- 
bedded,  compact,  dark-grey,  semi-splintery  rock,  which,  being 
well  jointed  at  right  angles  to  the  bedding,  is  easily  obtainable 
in  blocks  and  thin  slabs.  The  colour  is  so  dark  at  times  as  to 
give  almost  a  black  marble  when  the  stone  is  polished.  As 
the  group  in  which  this  limestone  occurs  underlies  the  'great 
Cuddapah  plain  '  and  crops  up  to. the  surface  on  either  side  of 
it,  it  follows  that  good  varieties  can  be  obtained  anywhere 
along  the  base  of  the  Nallamalais,  as  also  to  the  westward  of  a 


OCCUPATION  AND  TRADE 


113 


CHAP.    VI. 

Arts  and 
Industries. 


Other 
occupations. 


Tulv 


sinuous  line  drawn  from  Chintakommadinne,  some  five  miles 
south  of  Cuddapah,  through  Kamalapuram  and  Proddatur  to 
Peddapasupula,  a  few  miles  north-east  of  Jammalamadugu. 
The  best  quarries  are  therefore  very  favourably  situated  for 
transport  by  rail.  The  largest  quantity  of  slabs  are  entrained 
at  Yerraguntla  station. 

Other  industries,  which  account  for  small  numbers  of  the 
population,  present  no  exceptional  features  and  are  in  no  way 
peculiar  to  the  district.  '  Labourers  and  workmen  otherwise 
unclassified'  represented  at  the  last  census  about  15  per  mille 
of  the  total  inhabitants.  To  the  rest,  of  whom  thousands  are 
petty  shopkeepers,  occupation  is  mainly  provided  by  trade. 

The  district  of  Cuddapah  has  not  been  unaffected  by  the    Factories. 
industrial   tendency    exhibited   since    the   beginning   of    the 
century  in  the  direction  of  the  supersession  of  hand  labourby 
power-driven  machinery.     Using  the  term  '  factory  '  to  signify 

every  installation  of 
such  machinery,  the 
figures  in  the  mar- 
gin show  the  number 
of  factories  in  the 
district  as  at  the  last 
census  and  at  the 
present  time.  Ex- 
cluding the  applica- 
tion of  motive  power  to  the  raising  of  water  for  irrigation, 
which  is  largely  encouraged  by  Government,  the  growth  in 
the  factory  movement  during  the  last  few  years  appears 
remarkable  in  what  must  be  regarded  as  a  conservative 
district.  The  recent  boom  in  groundnut  cultivation  is 
responsible  for  the  establishment  of  nine  husking  mills  in  the 
taluks  of  Jammalamadugu,  Kamalapuram  and  Cuddapah. 
Cotton  is  both  ginned  and  pressed  by  motive  power  at 
Proddatur,  and  there  are  now  also  five  gins  in  Jammalamadugu 
and  two  in  Pulivendla.  The  weaving  factory  at  Cuddapah  is 
temporarily  closed  pending  the  construction  of  new  buildings. 
The  saffron  factory  at  Cuddapah  deserves  special  notice 
as  it  appears  to  be  the  only  one  in  the  Presidency.-  The 
machine  used  is  'Carter's  Disintegrator'  and  is  fitted  with 
two  sets  of  plates  which  enable  the  operator  to  grind  the 
powder  coarse  or  fine  as  may  be  required. 

As  the  manufactures  of  the  district  are  few  and  for  the 
Tiost  part  satisfy  local  requirements,  trade  assumes  but  little 


Weaving  factory      ...          

1911. 
I 

1914 

r 

iVIunicipal  water-works 

I 

I 

Cotton  pressing    or    ginning  fac- 

tories 

6 

II 

Saffron  works 

I 

I 

Irrigation     ... 

6 

...  ^ 

Groundnut  factories 

Q 

Trade. 


^  Number  not  reported. 

*  See  Census  Report,  191 1,  Chapter  XII,  Appendix  II. 


IS 


114  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  VI.  importance  and  merely  consists  of  the  collection  of  the  various 
Trade.       products  which  it  exports  and  the  distribution  of  its  imports. 

As  in  other  districts,  there  are  one  or  two  recognized  centres 

at  which  this  collection  and  distribution  are  mainly  carried  on. 
The  principal  trade  centre  in  the  district  is,  without  doubt, 
Proddatur,  though  some  eight  miles  distant  from  Yerraguntla, 
the  nearest  railway  station.  Cuddapah  comes  next,  after 
which  we  must  probably  rank  Rajampet,  which  is  situated  in 
the  busiest  part  of  the  eastern  division  of  the  district  and  is 
easily  accessible  from  Madras,  the  port  from  which  are  con- 
veyed such  of  the  products  of  the  district  as  find  their  way  to 
other  countries.^  Business  is  also  brisk  in  Badvel  and  Puli- 
vendla,  the  former  providing  a  link  with  the  coastal  district 
of  Nellore  and  the  latter  attracting  by  means  of  its  weekly 
market  much  of  the  merchandise  of  Rayachoti  taluk  and  the 
Kadiri  taluk  of  Anantapur  district.  It  is  through  such  weekly 
markets,  established  at  most  villages  of  importance  throughout 
the  district,  that  egress  is  afforded  to  the  industrial  output  of 
less  accessible  places.  The  big  traders  of  the  district  are 
Komatis,  the  principal  caste  of  hereditary  merchants  in  the 
Telugu  country.  Much  of  the  retail  trade  is  also  in  their 
hands.  Excluding  these,  the  Muhammadan  community  pro- 
bably contains  a  larger  proportion  of  shopkeepers  than  any 
others.  Numbers  of  Hindus  of  various  castes  are  also  engaged 
in  retail  trade. 
p:xports.  The  principal  export  of  the  district  is  raw   cotton,  most  of 

which,  to  the  aggregate  value  of  about  10  lakhs  a  year,  is  dealt 
with  by  two  large  firms  in  Proddatur.  Tadpatri,  in  Anantapur 
district,  is,  however,  nearer  to  the  south-western  villages  of 
Jammalamadugu  taluk,  the  ryots  of  which,  dispensing  with 
middlemen,  often  put  up  their  cotton  in  bags  and  cart  it  to  the 
Tadpatri  mills  themselves.  It  is  said  that  about  twice  as  much 
cotton  finds  its  way  from  Proddatur  to  Madras— mainly  for 
export  to  Europe — than  to  other  parts  of  India.  After  cotton 
the  chief  exports  appear  to  be  food-grains,  Cuddapah  slabs, 
minor  forest  produce,  indigo,  turmeric  and,  in  recent  years, 
groundnuts.  The  food-grains  mostly  consist  of  cholam  and 
ragi.  Cuddapah  slabs,  which  have  already  been  referred  to, 
are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  Presidency.  Of  minor  forest 
produce  the  toothsome  nut  known  as  sarapappu  is  obtained 
in  large  quantities  from  the  Palkonda  hills  and  is  exported 
to  Madras  and  elsewhere  both  by  way  of  Cuddapah  and 
"Rajampet.    The  trade  in  indigo,  as  is  well  known,  has  fallen 

•  A  %-ery  limited  quantity  is  also  exported  from  Pondicherry. 


OCCUPATION  AND  TRADE 


115 


on  evil  times,  but  it  is  still  exported  to  Madras  and  Rangoon  CHAP.  VI. 
and  parts  of  the  Central  Provinces  and  Bombay  Presidency.      Trade. 
Turmeric  which  is  largely  grown  in  parts  of  Proddatur,  Cudda-  — 

pah  and  Pullampet  taluks,  also  has  a  wide  market,  including 
such  distant  places  as  Bombay,  Delhi  and  Amritsar.  Ground- 
nuts are  generally  sent  to  Tiruttani,  Madras  or  Pondicherry. 
Other  local  products  that  deserve  mention  are  the  melons 
grown  in  the  bed  of  the  Penner  river,  especially  at  Sidhout, 
the  silk  goods  of  Madhavaram  and  the  oranges  of  Velpula  in 
Pulivendla  taluk.  The  latter  are  not  exported  in  very  large 
quantities,  but  the  melons  of  Sidhout  are  famous  and  bring  a 
large  profit  to  their  growers.  It  is  said  that  some  15,000 
melons  can  be  raised  on  an  acre  of  river  sand,  with  but  three 
manurings.  They  are  exported  to  Hyderabad,  Bombay, 
Calcutta,  Madras  and  even  to  Tanjore.  The  silk  cloths  of 
Madhavaram  are  chiefly  sent  to  neighbouring  districts,  but 
also  find  their  way  to  Raichur  and  the  Nizam's  Dominions. 

In  exchange  for  these  products  the  district  mostly  obtains  Imporu. 
such  household  requisites  as  salt  and  kerosine-oil,  and,  in  lesser 
quantities,  sugar,  spices  and  rice,  the  latter  principally  from 
Nellore  :  whence  also  come  the  agricultural  cattle  used  in  the 
black  cotton  country.  European  piece-goods  and  yarn  are 
largely  imported.  Finally  there  is  a  growing  demand  for 
coffee  and  wheat  owing  to  the  recent  popular  habit  of  taking 
coffee  and  wheat  cakes  as  morning  refreshment.  The  in- 
creased consumption  of  wheat  is  also  partly  due  to  the  supposed 
injurious  effects  of  a  rice  diet  on  people  who  are  predisposed 
to  diabetes. 

The  weights  and  measures  in  popular  use  are  not  uniform 
throughout  the  district.  Variations  even  occur  in  the  same 
taluk.  The  following  is  an  account  of  the  standards  most 
generally  accepted  : — 

The  ordinary  table  of  weights  is  as  follows  : — 
20  tolas         ...         ...         ...         ...      =     I  seer. 

6  seers         ...  ...  ...  ...      =     i  panch  seer. 

12  seers         ...  ...  ...         ...      =      l  dhadiyam. 

4  dhadiyams  ...         ...         ...      =     i  maund  (about  26  lb.) 

The  reason,  it  is  said,  why  a  weight  of  six  seers  is  called 
"  panch  seer,"  which  literally  means  "  five  seers,"  is  that  the 
old  maund  weighed  40  seers  instead  of  48  as  at  present.  One- 
eighth  of  a  maund  then  represented  five  seers.  Early  in  the 
19th  century  the  weight  of  the  maund  in  the  Ceded  Districts 
was  changed  to  48  seers,  but  though  one-eighth  of  this  new 
maund  now  weighed  six  seers  it  was  still  called  "panch  seer." 
A  seer  of  gold  or  silver  weighs,  as  elsewhere,  24  tolas  and  is 


Weights 

.-VND 

Me.^sures. 


Table  of 
weight. 


Ii6 


CUDDAPAH 


AND 

Measures 

Grain 
measures. 


CHAP.  VI.  designated  in  parts  of  the  district  "  pedda  althi  "  to  distinguish 
Weights  it  from  the  ordinary  or  "chinna  althi  "  seer.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  a  weight  of  6o  maunds  of  raw  cotton  is  called  a 
kantlam,  and  the  same  term  is  used  to  signify  1 5  maunds  of 
pressed  cotton  or  45  maunds  of  cotton-seeds. 

The  seer  generally  used  for  measuring  grain  is  one  which 
will  hold  88  tolas  weight  of  second  sort  rice  when  heaped. 
There  is  however  another  seer  known  as  the  "  pakka  seer" 
which  weighs  132  tolas  and  is  sub-divided  into  two  padlu.  Padi 
is  the  word  commonly  used  for  the  lowest  unit  of  measure  or 
seer.  The  largest  measure  of  grain  in  use  is  called  a  putti. 
but  the  number  of  seers  it  contains  varies  in  different  parts  of 
the  district.  In  the  black  cotton  country  it  is  generally  640 
seers,  and  in  Rayachoti  taluk  500  seers.  Elsewhere  it  may  be 
320,  480  or  560  seers.  The  measures  below  the  putti  are 
generally  the  following  : — 

2  kunchairs  ...  ...  ...  ...  =  I  irasa. 

2  iiasas    ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  =  i  thumu. 

5  ihumus  ...  ..  ...  ...  =  I  edum. 

2  edums  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  =  I  pandum. 

2  pandums  ...  ...  ...  ...  =  i  putti. 

Between  the  seer  and  the  kuncham  is  the  muntha,  but  the 
number  of  seers  to  a  muntha  varies  to  such  a  bewildering 
extent,  that  it  is  best  excluded  altogether.  In  the  above  table 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  putti  contains  twenty  thumus.  In  some 
parts  of  the  district,  however,  the  thumu  is  one-eighth  of  a  putti. 

The  seer  of  measure  and  its  sub-multiples,  half,  quarter, 
eighth  and  sixteenth,  are  used  in  retailing  liquids,  except  that 
oil  and  ghee  are  sold  sometimes  by  measure  and  sometimes 
by  weight. 

The  English  yard  and,  less  frequently,  the  foot  and  inch 
are  in  use,  but  the  popular  standards  of  measurement,  which 
are  derived  from  the  hand  and  the  arm  are  as  follows: — 

A  veledu  is  a  finger's  breadth,  and 

4  veledus    ...  ...  ...      =      i  bethedu  (breadth  of  the  four  fingers 

closed). 

The  distance  between  the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
when  fully  extended  is  called  ajittedii,  and  that  between  the 
tips  of  the  thumb  and  little  finger  fully  extended  is  a  jdncdu  ; 
then 


Liquid 
measures. 


Lineal 
measures. 


2  janedus 


4  muredus 


I  muredu  (cubit,  i.e.,  the  length  from 
tne  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle 
finger). 

I  baredu  (the  distance  between  the  tijJS 
of  the  two  middle  fingers  measured 
across  the  chest  with  the  arms 
extended). 


OCCUPATION  AND  TRADE  1 17 

The   depth  of   wells   is  calculated   in   terms  of  a   unit  of   CHAP.    VI. 
measurement  called  mattu,  roughly  corresponding  to  a   man's   weights 
height.     In  Kamalapuram  taluk  and  places   where  wells  are         and 
revetted  with  Cuddapah  slabs  the  term  giidhi  is  used  to  denote   Measures. 
an  excavation  of  three  feet  deep  and  two  yards  wide,  these 
being  the  dimensions  of  the  slabs  in  use.     In  other  parts  an 
excavation  of  a  cubit  in  depth  and  width  is  known  as  a  kunta. 

The  common  measures  of  distance  are  the  paragu,  or  2/^ 
miles,  and  the  dmada  which  is  equal  to  four  paragus  or  ten 
miles. 

Now  that  watches  are  much  more  used  than  formerly,   the   Measures  of 
English  measures  of  time  are  pretty  well  understood,  but  the    ""^^' 
popular  measures  are — 

60  virhadias    ...  ...         ...      =      i  ghadia  (24  minutes). 

2  ghadias       ...  .,  ...      =      i  anihurtam. 

yh  ghadias       ...  ...  ...      =      i  jamu  (three  hours). 

Besides  these  terms  certain  expressions  are  used  by  the 
country  people  to  indicate  particular  times  of  the  day,  for 
example  repitdla  means  the  period  between  6  and  9  A.M., 
payitdla  is  the  time  from  12  noon  to  2  P.M.,  while  pcdda  yesidla 
and  chiiina  yesuUa  poddu  correspond  roughly  to  the  periods 
from  2  to  4  P.M.  and  4  to  6  P.M.  respectively.  Mapitayfda  is 
also  used  to  express  the  evening  up  to  about  sunset,  from 
which  time  till  about  8  P.M.  is  the  period  known  as  sandhakada. 


Il8  CUDDAPAH 


CHAPTER  VII. 

MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION. 


Roads — In  1854 — Extension  during  famines — Present  administra- 
tion— Avenues — Travellers'  bungalows  and  choultries.  The 
Canal.     Railways — Projected  lines — Accidents. 

CHAP.  VII.  The  roads  of  the  district  received  but  little  attention  prior 

Roads.       to  ths  middle  of  the  last  century.     In  the  early  fifties  we  find 

the  districts  of  Cuddapah  and  Nellore  comprised,  for  the  pur- 

In  1S54.  pQgg  q£  Public  Works,  in  the  second  division  of  the  Presidency, 

The  Civil  Engineer  in  charge  of  this  division  reports,  in  1854, 
"  The  Government  are  fully  aw^are  that  up  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  year  little  had  been  effected  for  this 
division  under  the  first  of  the  above  headings  (i.e.,  Communi- 
cations) further  than  in  the  formation  of  the  great  north  road 
running  through  the  whole  length  of  the  Nellore  district." 
From  the  same  report  we  gather  that  a  small  amount  had 
recently  been  expended  in  improving  the  "  direct  Cuddapah 
and  Madras  road  "  and  that  the  Superintendent  of  Roads  had 
in  progress  the  important  line  of  communication  joining 
Arcot  with  Cuddapah.  With  the  exception  of  these  two  roads 
the  district  was  practically  devoid  of  communications.  In  this 
year,  however,  an  important  new  road  was  in  course  of  con- 
struction, namely,  that  leading  from  Badvel  eastwards  through 
Atmakur  to  Nellore  and  Krishnapatam  on  the  east  coast,  and 
sanction  had  been  obtained  to  the  extension  of  this  road 
westwards  to  Proddatur.  The  programme  of  operations  for 
1855  and  1856  was  ambitious  and  included  among  the  roads 
to  be  commenced   all  those  noted  in  the  margin.     Of  these 

Porumamilla  by  the  Thakur  ghat  to  projected  lines  tWO,  namely, 
Ramayapatnam  on  the  east  coast.  ^^g   j-oad   from    Porumamilla   tO 

Extension  of  Badvel  and  Proddatur  Ramayapatnam  and  the  '  direct 
line  to  Bellary  frontier  north  of  ^oad  from  Cuddapah  tO  Nellore' 
Penner.  ,      •  ,       r  ..1      t.  - 

Khajipei  to  Kurnooi  frontier.  on  the  south  Side  of  the  Penner, 

Rayachoii  to  Chitvei.  never  materialized.     Both  these 

Cuddapah  and  Madras  Road  (Trunk       roads    were    tO    be    constructed 

^°-  ^^}-    „.      ,,  with     the     avowed    object    of 

Cuddapah  to  Vempalle, 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION  II 9 

Kadiri  to  Vempalle.  "opening  up  the  coast   to  the    CHAP.  VII. 

Rayachotito  Vempalle.  interior,"'    to    which   consider-       Roads. 

Kadiri  to  Pulivendia.  able  importance   was  attached,  

Riyachoti  to  Gurramkonda.  Special  emphasis  was  laid  on 

Direct    Road    from    Cuddapah  to     ^^e    feasibility    of    the    direct 

Nellore  on  south  side  of  river.  ,       r  /^     i  i  u     ^      -m    i 

„   ,  .,      „..     .    .,,  route  from    Cuddapah   to  Nel- 

Badvel  to  Porumamilla.  * 

Completion  of  Cuddapah  and  Cum-     ^^ve,  south  of  the  Penner,  and 
bum  line.  the  advantages  of  its  proposed 

alignment,  which  is  reported 
to  be  "  so  clearly  advantageous  for  adopting  the  first  15  miles 
of  the  direct  Cuddapah  and  Madras  road  as  far  as  Vontimitta, 
and  leaves  only  70  miles  to  be  constructed,  making  a  total 
distance  of  85  miles  in  lieu  of  103  by  the  present  road,  to  say 
nothing  of  crossing  only  one  river  (Cheyyer)  in  lieu  of  the 
Penner,  the  Sagiler"  and  other  streams  in  Nellore  district. 
The  section  from  Vontimitta  to  the  Veligondas  was  never 
laid,  and  the  country  which  this  road  was  intended  to  tra- 
verse is  to  the  present  day  probably  the  most  inaccessible  in 
the  district,  while  the  road  through  Badvel  and  Atmakur 
is,  and  is  likely  to  remain,  the  only  passable  route  from 
Cuddapah  to  Nellore. 

All  the  other  roads  included  in  the  list  exist  at  the  present    Extension 
day,  though  many  of  them,  notably  the  road  from  Kadiri  over  ^'"""S 

■'  .         _  ■'  famines, 

the  Kuril  ghat  to  Pulivendia,  a  branch  of  which  extends  also 
to  Vempalle,  were  only  completed  during  the  great  famine. 
In  the  famine  of  1891-92  relief  works  were  opened  in  the  main 
division,  but,  as  concerns  roads,  were  confined  to  repairs.  In 
Rayachoti  taluk,  however,  a  serviceable  road  was  constructed 
from  Galivedu  to  Konampet  through  Nulivedu.     More  lasting 

results  were  obtained  from  the 

Proddatur-Jammalamadueu.  ,.    r-  1        •       ^-^    ^     1    •       ,o^_ 

,..,,_■.       .    .,,   ^  relief  works  instituted  in  loQ/, 

Maidukuru-Porumamilla.  ' 

Verragumla-vempaiie.  when      the      marginally-noted 

Verragudipad-Kokatam.  important  roads  among  others, 

were  constructed  or  improved. 
As  in  other  parts  of  the  Presidency,  the  maintenance  and   Present 
construction  of  roads  entirely  devolved    on  the  Local  Fund  '^dmims- 

•^  tration. 

Boards    in    the    year   1879-80,   from   which   date  the  District 

Board  has  employed  its  own  engineering  establishment 
directly  responsible  to  itself.  The  maintenance  of  existing 
communications  constitutes  the  heaviest  charge  on  Local  Funds 
and  the  annual  allotment  for  new  works  often  amounts  to 
about  half  the  maintenance  charges.  The  district  is  well  pro- 
vided with  metal  and  in  the  greater  part  of  it  good  gravel  is 
obtainable,  but  the  lack  of  water  often  renders  successful 
rnaintenance  a  very  difficult  task,  and  in  seasons  of  scanty 


120 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  VII 

Roads. 


Avenues. 


Travellers' 
bungalows 
and 

choultries. 


The  Canal. 


rainfall  many  miles  of  important  roads  are  perforce  left  un- 
mended.  Presumably  this  mainly  accounts  for  the  consider- 
able surrenders  of  allotments  under  repairs  to  communications 
in  past  years,  and  in  face  of  this  difficulty  it  may  be  thought 
unreasonable  to  urge  a  further  expenditure  on  existing  roads 
in  preference  to  opening  up  new  communications.  On  the 
other  hand  the  utility  of  even  the  best  roads  of  the  district  is 
so  impaired  by  the  difficulty  of  crossing  the  rivers  which 
intersect  all  but  one  of  the  main  roads,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
swollen  hill  streams  that  periodically  wash  away  the  minor 
roads  and  cart-tracks,  that  the  question  of  bridging  the  rivers 
on  the  most  frequented  routes  is,  especially  in  view  of  the  rapid 
development  of  motor  traffic,  assuming  considerable  import- 
ance. The  Penner,  Papaghni  and  Cheyyer  all  interpose  wide 
barriers  of  sand  between  some  of  the  most  important  towns  in 
the  district,  to  cross  which  a  loaded  cart  often  requires  two  or 
three  pairs  of  bullocks.  There  are  but  few  ferries  that  are 
regularly  maintained,  so  that  during  heavy  rains  cart  traffic  is 
not  infrequently  held  up  for  days  together,  and  foot  passengers 
who  cannot  swim  are  wise  if  they  stay  at  home. 

As  a  whole  the  district  is  not  well  off  in  respect  of  avenues. 
In  the  eastern  division  they  only  occur  in  the  southern  parts 
of  Pullampet  taluk.  There  are  some  well-grown  trees  on  the 
Cuddapah-Guvvalacheruvu  road  and  others  passing  through 
the  central  taluks  of  the  district.  Elsewhere  one  only  observes 
a  few  tender  shoots  and  young  trees  for  short  distances  along 
the  road-side,  which  afford  evidence  of  recent  attempts  to 
render  less  irksome  the  journeys  of  a  future  generation  of 
travellers  by  road.  But  the  want  of  water  largely  frustrates 
these  good  intentions,  and  in  many  places  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty must  be  experienced  in  bringing  the  trees  to  maturity. 
At  present  therefore  the  district  is  mostly  devoid  of  effective 
avenues,  and  an  occasional  tope  by  the  road-side  generally 
affords  the  only  shade  obtainable. 

A  list  of  travellers'  bungalows  maintained  by  the  Public 
Works  and  Forest  Departments,  with  particulars  of  their 
accommodation,  will  be  found  in  a  separate  appendix.^  At 
Cuddapah  one  is  maintained  by  the  Municipality.  The  Local 
Boards  provide  three  bungalows  in  this  district,  and  keep  up 
fourteen  choultries  for  the  use  of  Indian  travellers. 

Some  account  of  the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  has  already 
been  given  in  connection  with  the  extensive  irrigation  which 
it  affords.     It  is  also  a  waterway  and  attracts  a  certain  amount 


^  See  Volume  U. 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION  121 

of  traffic,  mostly   in  the  shape  of  heavy  goods.     Cuddapah   CHAP.  VII. 
slabs   are   conveniently  transported    in  this  way.     The  esti-  The  Canal. 

mated  values  of  cargoes  up  and  down  the  canal  in  the  year         

1912-13  exceeded  three  lakhs  of  rupees.  Sixteen  boats  ply 
for  cargo  and  eight  for  passenger  traffic.  The  number  of 
passengers  on  the  canal  did  not  exceed  thirteen  hundred  in 
1912-13.  Navigation  receipts  for  the  same  year  amounted  to 
a  little  less  than  fifteen  hundred  rupees.  These  figures  are 
for  the  whole  length  of  the  canal  in  Kurnool  as  well  as 
Cuddapah  district. 

The  north-west  line  of  the  Madras  and  Southern  Mahratta  Railways. 
Railway  enters  the  district  at  Balapalle  in  its  south-east  corner, 
and  runs  diagonally  across  it  to  the  north-west  boundary 
whence  it  continues  through  the  Anantapur  district.  The 
principal  railway  stations  are  Kodur,  Nandalur,  Cuddapah, 
Kamalapuram,  Yerraguntla  and  Kondapuram.  This  line  was 
opened  in  1804-66.  About  120  miles  of  its  length  falls  within 
Cuddapah  district.  This  solitary  line  of  railway  is  inade- 
quate to  the  needs  of  the  district.  Not  only  are  there  towns 
of  secondary  importance  such  as  Rayachoti  and  Porumamilla 
situated  more  than  thirty  miles  from  any  station,  but  Proddatur 
and  Jammalamadugu — the  former  probably  the  wealthiest 
town  in  the  Ceded  Districts — are  as  yet  unconnected  with  any 
railway  system.  The  importance  of  opening  up  more  of  the 
district  to  railroad  communication  has  for  a  long  time  been 
recognized  by  the  Government  and  is  constantly  receiving 
the  attention  of  the  local  authorities. 

In  the  year  1898,  after  the  second  famine  of  the  last  Projected 
decade  of  the  century,  the  Government  selected  certain  lines 
as  being  best  suited  for  construction  as  famine  protective 
railways.  One  of  these  was  a  line  from  Kalikiri,  a  station 
on  the  metre-gauge  line  in  Vayalpad  taluk,  to  Rayachoti. 
The  line  was  surveyed  and  a  report  on  its  proposed  construc- 
tion, together  with  an  estimate  and  plans,  was  made  ready 
by  the  end  of  1900.  In  April  1902  this  line  was  considered 
along  with  five  others  and  was  placed  last  in  order  of  relative 
urgency  because,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Government,  "a  recon- 
sideration of  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  district  to  be 
served  by  this  branch  has  led  to  some  doubt  as  to  whether  its 
possible  utility  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  expenditure  which 
would  be  incurred  on  its  construction."  In  November  of  the 
same  year  the  Government  says  of  this  project :  "  The  con- 
clusion now  arrived  at  is  that  the  conditions  of  the  district 
with  regard  to  the  population,  the  roads  and  the  routes  of 
communication  that  have  become  established  for  cart  traffic 
16 


122  CUDDAPAH 

CHAI .  .  ^j.g  g^^j^.}^  ^g  ^ould  prevent  Rayachoti  from  becoming  a  really 
Railways,  efficient  centre  of  distribution  ;  so  that  its  connection  with 
the  railway  system  would  not  accomplish  the  principal  object 
sought  for— that  ol  facilitating  and  cheapening  the  transport 
of  grain  in  a  time  of  scarcity."  The  Government  therefore 
no  longer  advocated  its  construction  as  a  famine  protective 
line  and  it  was  definitely  withdrawn  from  the  programme. 

This  line  was  however  only  part  of  a  bigger  enterprise 
formulated  by  the  Board  of  Revenue  in  1897,  which  contem- 
plated the  construction  of  a  line  from  Kalikiri  to  Nandyal, 
traversing  the  whole  of  the  district  from  south  to  north  and 
passing  through  Rayachoti,  Yerragudipad,  Proddatur  and 
Jammalamadugu. 

In  1905  the  Collector  of  the  district  urged  a  reconsideration 
of  the  abandonment  of  the  Kalikiri-Rayachoti  line  which  he 
represented  should  be  regarded  as  a  segment  of  the  more 
ambitious  project  of  connecting  Kolar  with  Nandyal  by  a 
line  taken  from  Bowringpet  station  through  PunganQr  to 
Kalikiri,  Rayachoti  and  Vempalle,  and  thereafter  to  Yerra- 
gudipad whence  the  formerly  projected  line  would  continue 
through  Proddatur  and  Jammalamadugu.  The  Government 
however  adhered  to  their  decision  to  abandon  the  Kalikiri- 
Rayachoti  line. 

In  the  following  year  the  Government  suggested  that  it 
was  desirable  "  to  include  in  the  programme  of  protective 
railways  a  line  for  the  protection  of  the  Cuddapah  and 
Kurnool  districts,  which  will  connect  the  north-west  line  of 
the  Madras  Railway  with  the  Bezwada-Guntakal  line  :  for 
example,  a  line  from  Cuddapah  to  Giddalur  via  Badvel,  or  Cud- 
dapah to  Nandyal  via  Sirvel."  The  Collectors  of  Kurnool  and 
Cuddapah  were  requested  to  report  on  the  relative  advantages 
of  these  alternative  lines.  As  the  proposed  route  t^m  Badvel 
would  not  greatly  benefit  the  Kurnool  district,  a  line 
through  the  north  of  Cuddapah  district  to  Nandyal  was 
advocated. 

As  a  result  of  the  correspondence  that  ensued  the  Govern- 
ment of  Madras  addressed  the  Government  of  India  in  1910  to 
sanction  the  construction  of  the  Yerragudipad-Nandyal  Rail- 
way as  a  protective  line,  funds  for  which  should  be  provided 
from  the  Famine  Insurance  Grant,  But  the  Government  of 
India,  while  recognizing  its  importance,  declined  to  sanction 
the  execution  of  the  project  from  this  grant  as  all  the  money 
available  therefrom  was  likely  to  be  required  for  some  time  to 
come  for  the  carrying  out  of  "  even  more  important  irrigatiou 
projects." 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATlOxM  123 

Within  the  last  few  months  the  District  Board   has  passed  CHAP.  VII. 
a   resolution   in   favour  of  levying  an  additional  cess  for  the    Railways. 

construction  of  this  branch  line.     The  papers  are  said  to  be         

before  Government  at  the  time  of  writing,'  and  it  is  hoped  that  Accidents, 
the  project  may  have  a  better  chance  now  of  being  carried  out. 

Several  railway  accidents  have  unfortunately  occurred 
within  the  limits  of  this  district,  the  majority  being  due  to  the 
weakening  of  some  one  of  the  numerous  bridges  which  span 
the  various  rivers  and  streams  over  wliich  the  line  has  to  pass. 
The  district  appears  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to  periodical 
bursts  of  rain,  of  a  violence  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the 
average  annual  rainfall,  and  at  such  times  the  rivers  and 
streams  of  the  district — which  receive  most  of  the  drainage 
of  the  Mysore  plateau — rise  with  alarming  rapidity  and 
endanger  both  life  and  property.  The  annals  of  the  district 
show  that  the  most  dangerous  floods  are  to  be  expected  in  the 
latter  part  of  October,  when  the  north-east  monsoon  some- 
times first  makes  its  appearance  with  the  burst  of  a  cyclonic 
storm.  Such  an  instance  occurred  on  the  night  of  October 
20,  1870,  when  the  Cheyyer  rapidly  rose  to  full  flood,  and  an 
arch  of  the  bridge  gave  way  before  the  violence  of  the  torrent 
and  the  debris  which  it  brought  down  and  wedged  against 
the  piers.  Whether  the  section  was  actually  carried  away 
before  the  train  arrived  or  the  train  itself  brought  down  the 
bridge  was  never  ascertained.  As  the  mail  passed  over  the 
bridge  with  slackened  speed,  though  without  any  warning  of 
danger,  the  engine  and  the  two  front  carriages  were  precipi- 
tated into  the  river.  Three  passengers  were  killed,  two  of 
whom  were  Europeans,  as  well  as  five  railway  employees.  The 
bodies  were  recovered  and  buried  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
river.  Owing  to  the  slow  pace  at  which  the  train  was  going 
the  hinder  wagons  were  stopped  in  time  by  the  brake,  the 
couplings  between  the  front  wagons  and  the  rest  of  the  train 
having  snapped. 

In  June  1874  there  was  another  serious  accident.  An 
inspection  train  going  over  the  bridge  at  Kamalapuram  at  a 
rapid  pace  got  off  the  line,  came  into  collision  with  one  of  the 
piers,  and  then  leapt  down  into  the  sandy  bed  of  the  river. 
It  is  a  matter  for  surprise  that  every  person  in  it  was  not  killed. 
Mr.  Robinson,  the  Permanent  Way  Inspector,  and  Mr.  Ha  worth, 
the  Assistant  Traffic  Manager,  escaped  with  slight  injuries,  but 
a  subordinate  who  was  in  the  same  carriage  was  cut  to  pieces, 
and  another  employee  was  so  injured  that  he  afterwards  died. 
The  other  occupants  of  the  train  escaped  with  few  injuries. 

'  1st  July  1914. 


124  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  VII.         But  these  accidents,   serious  enough   as  they    were,    are 
Railw.ws.    dwarfed  by  the  magnitude  of  the  disaster  that  occurred  near 

Mangapatnam   in   1902.     Between  the   hours  of  midnight  and 

3  A.M.  on  the  early  morning  of  September  12,  a  sudden 
deluge  of  rain  in  the  nature  of  a  waterspout  fell  and  flooded 
the  country  on  the  south  side  of  the  railway  line,  sweeping 
away  the  second  and  third  spans  of  bridge  No.  664  near  the 
206th  mile  a  little  beyond  Mangapatnam  railway  station. 
The  mail  train,  which  was  unusually  full  as  it  carried  home- 
ward bound  passengers  and  the  Europe  mail,  passed  through 
the  station  without  stopping  shortly  after  3  A.M.,  and,  on 
reaching  the  bridge,  was,  with  the  exception  of  the  rear 
brake-van,  precipitated  into  the  gap.  The  disaster  was  unfor- 
tunately attended  with  lamentable  loss  of  life ;  seventy-one 
dead  bodies  were  subsequently  recovered  either  at  the  scene 
of  the  accident  or  at  various  points  down  stream  where  they 
had  been  carried  by  the  current.  Seventy-seven  persons 
escaped,  and  eight  only  remained  unaccounted  for  to  complete 
the  total  of  156  who  were  in  the  train  according  to  the  calcula- 
tion made  by  the  committee  of  enquiry.  The  collapse  of  the 
bridge  was  found  to  be  due  to  the  side  pressure  to  which  the 
skew  piers  and  girders  were  subjected  by  the  immense  volume 
of  water  which  rose  above  the  girders  on  the  south  side  :  its 
force  being  augmented  by  large  accumulations  of  straw  and 
rubbish  until  one  of  the  piers  gave  way  and  was  bodily  over- 
turned. The  Government  held  the  accident  to  be  due  to 
causes  beyond  human  control  and  neither  attributable  to 
negligence  on  the  part  of  the  railway  administration  nor 
laxity  on  the  part  of  the  Company's  establishment. 


RAINFALL  AND  SEASONS  125 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
RAINFALL   AND  SEASONS. 


Rainfall — Liability  to  famine.  Early  Scarcities.  The  Great 
Famine  of  18)6-78 — Series  of  bad  seasons— Beginnings  of  dis- 
tress in  July  1876 — Relief  works  opened  in  September — Prices 
suddenly  rise  in  October-December  1876;  serious  famine — 
Deputation  of  Sir  Richard  Temple — His  views  in  regard  to 
Cuddapah — Distress  increases  in  1877 — June  to  August  1877 — 
Rain  falls  in  September — The  cost  of  the  famine.  Scarcities 
SUBSEQUENT  TO  THE  Great  Famine — The  famine  of  1891-92 — 
The  famine  of  1896-97.     Floods — In  the  first  quarter   of  the 

19th  century — Great  storm  of  185 1 — Excessive  rains  in  1874 

The  floods  in  1903. 

The  rainfall  in  the  Ceded  Districts  is  lighter  than  in  any  CHAP. 
other  division  of  the  Presidency,  but  of  these  districts  Cud-  VIIL 
dapah  on  account  of  its  situation  derives  greater  benefit  from     Raim  all. 

the  north-east  monsoon  than  do  the   rest,  and  this  advantage  

is  measured  by  an  excess  of  about  five  inches  over  the  average 
annual  rainfall  of  Bellary  and  Anantapur,  and  about  three 
inches  over  that  of  Kurnool.  This  average  is  for  the  whole 
district  something  less  than  27^  inches,  but  the  variations 
between  its  parts  are  often  very  considerable;  for  example, 
Jammalamadugu,  the  least  favoured  taluk,  has  an  average 
fall  of  only  21  inches  while  Pullampet  taluk  obtains  as  much 
as  35  inches  in  the  year. 

With  Jammalamadugu  must  be  ranked  Pulivendla  taluk, 
for  which  the  average  is  only  half  an  inch  higher.  These 
are  the  two  westernmost  taluks  of  the  district  and  adjoin  the 
drier  districts  of  Kurnool  and  Anantapur.  The  central  taluks 
of  Proddatur,  Kamalapuram  and  especially  Cuddapah  are 
better  off.  Cuddapah  itself  has  an  average  annual  rainfall 
of  3l'66  inches,  but  is  so  situated  amid  surrounding  hills  that 
it  seems  to  catch  many  showers  that  leave  the  rest  of  the 
taluk  dry.  Rayachoti  taluk  on  the  plateau  is  better  oft'  than 
the  black  cotton  tract,  but  here  also  the  rain  is  very  partial 
and  the  fall  recorded  at  the  taluk  headquarters  can  scarcely 
be  taken  as  truly  indicating  the  condition  of  the  whole 
taluk,  which  is  so  broken  up  into  hills  and  valleys  that 
heavy  showers  are  often  confined  within  very  limited    areas. 


126 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP. 
VIII. 

Rainfall. 


More  rain  is  obtained  in  the  eastern  taluks  than  the  rest  of 
the  district,  and  the  fall  is  heavier  in  the  south  than  the 
north  where  the  Eastern  ghats  attain  a  greater  elevation  and 
bar  the  way  of  the  north-east  monsoon  to  the  interior.  The 
following  figures  show  the  annual  rainfall  based  on  the 
records  of  the  several  registering  stations  in  the  district  for  a 
series  of  years  prior  to  the  resettlement : — 

Station.  Average. 

Cuddapah  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...         ...  ...  3i'66 


Kamalapuram 
Proddatur  ... 
Jammalaniadugu 
Pulivendia  ... 
Rayachoti    ... 
Badvel 
Sidhout 
Pullampet  ... 


District  average 


24' 80 
24-99 
2105 

2154 
26-99 
27C8 
3280 
35'i3 

27'34 


The  rainiest  months  for  all  the  district  except  the  eastern 
division  are  August  and  September.  In  Badvel,  Sidhout  and 
Pullampet  more  rain  often  falls  in  October  than  in  either  of 
the  two  previous  months.  In  these  three  taluks  the  north-east 
monsoon  occasionally  continues  into  December;  but  with 
this  reservation  December  and  the  first  three  months  of  the 
year  are  generally  very  dry.  More  showers  are  received  in 
April  and  May  and  some  heavy  rain  is  usually  recorded  before 
the  end  of  June  after  the  south-west  monsoon  sets  in.  Wet 
weather  should  then  continue  till  the  end  of  September  in  the 
western  half  of  the  district  and  till  the  end  of  November  in 
the  eastern  division.  The  following  figures  give  the  average 
monthly  distribution  of  rain  at  Cuddapah  : — 


Months. 


January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 


Rainfall 

Number  of 

in  inches. 

rain 

y  days. 

033 

I 

010 

... 

09 

... 

0-43 

I 

1*64 

3 

2-96 

5 

3-82 

6 

5-91 

8 

684 

8 

5-52 

6 

313 

5 

089 

I 

Total 


31-66 


44 


RAINFALL  AND  SEASONS  127 

For   the   district  as  a    whole  the  heaviest  fall  on  record  is      CHAP. 
that  in  1874,  just  before  the    commencement  of  the  series  of         VIH. 
bad  seasons  that  led  to  the  great  famine  of  1876-78.     In  that  Raimall. 

year  each  of  the  taluks  of  Cuddapah,  Proddatur  and  Jammala-         

madugu  received  approximately  twice  their  annual  average, 
and  the  fall  in  Pullampet  taluk  which  bore  the  brunt  of  the 
cyclone  that  raged  over  much  of  the  districi:  from  October 
23  to  25  reached  the  abnormal  figure  of  67%  inches.  Ten 
years  later  unusually  abundant  rains  borne  in  by  the  north- 
east monsoon  in  1884  brought  the  year's  rainfall  in  this  taluk 
to  within  four  inches  of  the  same  figure.  Throughout  the 
whole  district  the  minimum  rainfall  was  recorded  in  1876, 
when  Jammalamadugu  received  but  four  and  a  half  inches, 
Cuddapah  nine  and  a  half,  and  Pullampet  six  and  a  half. 
The  marked  variations  between  these  two  extremes,  of  which 
the  records  of  the  last  forty  years  are  eloquent,  show  how 
uncertain  is  the  supply  from  year  to  year.  Moreover,  agri- 
cultural practice  is  so  stereotyped  that  if  the  heavy  rains  are 
not  obtained  at  certain  definite  periods  dry  crops  will  fail  over 
large  areas  :  so  that  the  prosperity  of  a  year  cannot  be  gauged 
merely  with  reference  to  the  total  rainfall  received.  This  is 
also  no  true  criterion  of  the  relative  economic  conditions  of 
two  such  dissimilar  tracts  as  are  represented,  for  example,  by 
the  Jammalamadugu  and  Rayachoti  taluks.  The  heavy,  fer- 
tile soils  of  the  former  require  but  a  scanty  rainfall  to  produce 
bumper  crops  of  cholam  and  cotton,  while  the  coarse  red 
soils  on  the  plateau  are  incapable  of  retaining  moisture  and 
need  a  more  copious  and  better  distributed  rainfall  to  obtain  a 
satisfactory  harvest. 

Agriculture  is  so  predominant  a  factor  in  the  life  of  the  Liability  to 
population  and  the  area  effectually  protected  by  irrigation  is  f<"^>i^^- 
so  small  that  the  prosperity  of  the  district  may  be  said  to 
depend  almost  entirely  on  an  adequate  rainfail  and  its  timely 
precipitation.  That  it  is  nevertheless  subject  to  marked  vicis- 
situdes of  seasons  necessarily  entails  its  liability  to  periods 
of  more  or  less  acute  distress.  By  far  the  most  serious  of 
these  was  the  great  famine  of  1876-78.  But  both  prior  and 
subsequent  to  this  widespread  disaster  there  have  occurred 
visitations  which,  though  less  calamitous  in  their  intensity, 
were  of  sufficiently  exceptional  severity  to  deserve  mention. 

The   only  famine   previous  to  the   cession    of  the   Deccan       Early 
districts,  of  which  any  particulars  have  come  down  to  us,  is  Scarcities. 
that  of  1791-92.     The  Northern  Circars  were  chiefly  affected, 
but  the  famine  was  also  intense  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the 
Peninsula  to  the  southern  districts  of  the  Bombay  Presidency, 


128  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  and  the  whole  of  the  Deccan  was  therefore  involved.  It 
VIII.  was  on  this  occasion  that  relief-works  were  first  opened  by 
Early  the  Madras  Government  for  the  support  of  those  affected 
Scarcities,  ^^y  ^^^  famine.  In  writing  about  this  famine  some  ten  years 
later  Munro  says  :  "  Had  the  officers  of  Government  lowered 
the  assessment,  or  even  let  it  remain  as  before  the  effects  of 
the  famine  would  probably  only  have  been  felt  while  it  lasted 
but  as  they  raised  it  nearly  50  per  cent,  wherever  there  was  a 
crop,  this  addition  to  the  high  price  necessarily  occasioned  by 
the  scarcity  rendered  grain  so  dear  that  very  little  could  be 
purchased  by  the  lower  classes  of  the  inhabitants,  and  great 
numbers  of  them  perished  in  consequence.''  The  first  scarcity 
after  the  cession  was  in  l802,  when  Munro  reported  that  the 
crop  outturns  were  below  the  average  throughout  his  charge. 
In  1806  again  there  was  a  widespread  failure  of  rain,  but  the 
Deccan  districts  were  less  heavily  visited  than  other  parts  of 
the  Presidency,  notably  the  Carnatic  and  the  neighbourhood 
of  Madras.  The  distress  however  was  very  severe  and  Munro 
considered  the  season  worse  than  had  ever  been  known. 
There  was  much  discussion  as  to  the  proper  measures  to  be 
taken  by  Government  on  the  occasion  of  this  famine.  In 
deprecating  interference  with  the  grain  trade  and  suggesting 
that  distress  could  best  be  alleviated  by  remissions  of  revenue 
Munro  adumbrated  principles  that  have  been  accepted  in  all 
subsequent  famines. 

In  1833  occurred  the  Guntur  famine,  so  called  from  its 
severity  in  the  old  Guntur  district  where  thirty  per  cent,  of  the 
population  were  estimated  to  have  perished  from  want.  In 
Cuddapah  district  the  black  cotton  tract  seems  to  have 
suffered  worst.  But  in  writing  in  1874  of  this  famine  as  well 
as  the  subsequent  visitations  of  1854  and  1866  which  had 
occurred  well  within  the  memory  of  the  great  majority,  ryots 
and  officials,  then  living,  Mr.  Gribble,  the  author  of  the 
"Cuddapah  Manual, "  states  as  follows:  "Famines  do  not 
ever  seem  to  have  seriously  affected  this  district.  Even 
during  the  celebrated  Naiuhuia^  year,  though  there  was 
considerable  distress  and  severe  pressure,  there  was  never  an 
actual  famine.  ...  In  1866  there  was  distress  but  no 
actual  famine.  Several  relief  works  were  then  put  in  hand, 
and  notably  roads,  but  the  distress  was  not  so  general  that 
very  large  numbers  availed  themselves  of  this  offer  of 
labour."  It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  numbers  were 
employed  on  the  construction  of  roads  during  the  famine  of 
1854,    when,   as   already    recorded,'-   the    task    of   improving 

^  The  Hindu  cyclic  year  corresponding  to  A.D.  1833.     ^  See  Chapter  VII. 


RAINFALL  AND  SEASONS  129 

communications  first  received  serious  attention.     Mr.  Cribble's      CHAP, 
rather  optimistic  view  of  the  comparative  immunity  of  the         VIIL 
district  from  famine  was  destined  to  receive  a  severe  shock,        Early 
for  within   two  years  of  writing  the  words  here  quoted  he  Scarcities. 
was  himself,  as  Sub-Collector  of  the  sub-division,  engaged  in 
combating  the  worst  visitation  of  the  kind  ever  recorded. 

In  respect  of  the  area   and  population  affected  and  the  The  Great 
duration  and  intensity  of  the  distress,  the  great  famine  which    Famine  of 
prevailed  for  more  than  a  year  and  a  half  over  most  of  the      1876-78. 
Madras  Presidency  from  1876  to  1878  was  the  worst  calamity 
of  its  kind  experienced  in  British   India  since  the  beginning 
of  the  century.     Fourteen  districts  were  affected,  eight  of  them 
severely,   and  the  famine   is   calculated  to  have  caused  the 
death  of  three  and  a  half  millions  of  people.     The  expendi- 
ture incurred  by  the  State  on  account  of  famine  during  the 
two  years  ending  March  1878  is  officially  estimated  at  nearly 
Rs.  625   lakhs,   to   which   must   be   added  a  further   sum  of 
Rs.   191  lakhs    on    account   of   loss   of    revenue.     Cuddapah 
district  was  unfortunately  included  in  the  tract  that  suffered 
most. 

The  continued  series  of  unfavourable  seasons  which  led  to  Series  of  bad 
the  establishment  of  famine  conditions  began  in  1874  when  a  ^'^^^°^^- 
part  of  the  crops  throughout  the  district  suffered  from  exces- 
sive rains.  In  the  following  year  the  south-west  monsoon  was 
late  and  brought  but  a  scanty  rainfall,  while  the  north-east 
monsoon  was  a  complete  failure.  In  April  1876  Collectors 
whose  districts  were  regarded  as  likely  to  suffer  from  this 
failure  were  called  on  by  the  Board  of  Revenue  to  submit  lists 
of  relief  works  proposed  to  be  put  in  hand  should  necessity 
arise.  Cuddapah  was  one  of  the  districts  so  dealt  with,  but 
it  was  then  thought  possible  that  no  exceptional  measures 
would  be  called  for. 

This  hope  was  frustrated  in  July  when  the  Collector,  Mr.  Beginnings  of 
J.  R.  Daniel,  reported  that  the  taluks  of  Pulivendla  and  jinv^s;?. 
Badvel  as  well  as  the  country  round  Kamalapuram  were  in 
distressed  conditions  and  apprehended  that  it  would  shortly 
be  necessary  to  undertake  some  work  in  those  parts  for  the 
relief  of  the  poorest :  to  provide  for  which  he  asked  for 
Rs.  25,000  to  be  placed  at  his  disposal.  The  Board  remarked 
that  previous  reports  had  not  shown  the  danger  to  be  so 
imminent,  and  recommended  a  provision  of  Rs.  10,000  to  meet 
emergencies.  The  Government  accordingly  placed  this  sum 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Collector. 

In  the  early  part  of  August  there  was  'a  fair  fall  of  rain.' 
and    agricultural     operations    were    begun.     Conditions     in 
17 


130 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP. 
VIII. 

The  Great 

Famine  of 

1876-78. 

Relief  works 
opened  in 
September. 


Prices 
suddenly 
rise  in 
October. 


December 
1876; 
serious 
famine. 


Kamalapuram  and  Pulivendla  had  improved  and  the  danger 
zone  had  shifted  to  the  black  cotton  taluks  and  Badvel,  where 
the  Collector  reports  an  increase  in  crimes  of  housebreaking 
and  mischief  by  fire  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  grain. 

By  the  middle  of  September  conditions  were  everywhere 
much  worse,  no  rain  having  fallen  since  the  beginning  of  the 
previous  month.  In  Jammalamadugu  taluk  the  labouring 
classes  were  in  great  distress.  Dry  crops  had  not  been  sown 
except  in  a  strip  of  country  within  a  five  miles'  radius  north 
of  Jammalamadugu.  A  sum  of  Rs.  2,000  was  accordingly 
sanctioned  for  opening  relief  works  in  this  taluk.  The  people 
themselves  were  very  apprehensive  of  the  future.  Merchants 
and  such  of  the  ryots  as  had  stores  of  grain  would  not  offer  it 
for  sale,  expecting  to  need  it  for  their  own  requirements.  In 
this  month  also  parts  of  the  sub-division  began  to  suffer 
severely,  and  the  Sub-Collector,  Mr.  Gribble,  was  allotted 
Rs.  2,500  for  commencing  a  relief  work  in  Kadiri  taluk. 

During  October  prices  rose  suddenly,  and  the  rates  of 
wages  paid  to  relief  workers  had  to  be  enhanced.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  month  the  Board  of  Revenue  drew  up  a  fore- 
cast of  the  probable  requirements  per  month  of  each  district 
affected  by  the  famine,  on  account  of  expenditure  on  relief 
works,  the  calculation  being  made  at  two  annas  per  head  per 
day.  There  were  then  upwards  of  25,000  persons  employed 
on  relief  works  in  Cuddapah  district,  and  the  monthly 
expenditure  was  estimated  at  Rs.  2,12,000. 

The  absence  of  rain  throughout  November  rendered  the 
outlook  still  more  gloomy,  and  by  the  beginning  of  December 
all  hopes  of  a  favourable  monsoon  had  to  be  abandoned.  A 
famine  of  some  months'  duration  now  became  inevitable. 
The  numbers  on  works  and  gratuitous  relief  steadily  increased 
and  by  December  16  reached  the  following  figures: — 

Men.         Women.      Children.        Tctal. 

Relief  works      42,078        46,833         13,429         10,2,340 

Gratuitous  relief  ...       1,292  1,514  502  3, 308 

This  large  increase  together  with  the  uncertainty  of  supply 
of  food  led  the  Government  to  order  the  establishment  of 
grain  depots  in  the  districts  of  Bellary,  Kurnool  and  Cuddapah. 
Mr.  Thornhlll  was  constituted  the  first  Government  grain 
agent  for  these  districts,  with  his  headquarters  at  Bellary, 
and  divisional  officers  were  ordered  to  indent  on  him  for  grain 
for  their  depots  and  to  pay  special  attention  to  providing 
adequate  means  of  transport  from  the  railway  stations  to  the 
several  depots.  At  the  same  time  they  were  to  obtain  such 
grain  as  the  local  trade  could  supply. 


RAINFALL  AND  SEASONS  I^I 

The  condition  of  cattle  about  this  time  began    to  cause      CHAF. 
grave  anxiety,  and  the  advisabih'ty  of  utilizing  prickly-pear        VIIL 
as  fodder  was  commended  to  Collectors.     The  experiment  was  The  Great 
only  partially  successful.  Famine  of 

Officers  of  other  departments  were,  towards  the  end  of  the 
year,  largely  employed  to  assist  the  revenue  officials  to  cope 
with  the  immense  amount  of  additional  work  entailed  upon 
them  by  the  famine.  '  A  few  days  before  the  new  year 
Mr.  Puckle,  the  Deputy  Director  of  Settlement,  acting  on 
the  instructions  of  Government,  temporarily  broke  up  the 
Cuddapah  Settlement  Party  and  distributed  it  over  the  Ceded 
Districts  for  the  supervision  of  relief  works. 

At  the  end  of  1876  the  Governor  of  Madras  (the  Duke  of  Deputation 
Buckingham  and  Chandos)  left  the  Presidency  to  take  part  in  ?/.  ^"^  , 

1  •  T^    11  •   •  •  -11  ,  Kichard 

the  ceremonies  at  Delhi  in  connection  with  the  proclamation  Temple. 
of  Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  as  Empress  of  India.  His 
departure  at  this  critical  time  was  looked  upon  with  some 
disfavour  in  Madras,  but  the  visit  was  attended  by  good 
results  in  that  it  afforded  an  opportunity  for  a  personal 
conference  with  the  Governor-General  and  enabled  the 
Government  of  India  to  realize  for  the  first  time  the  full 
measure  of  the  calamity  from  which  the  Southern  Presidency 
was  suffering.  At  the  Council  which  met  at  Delhi  on  January 
5  the  policy  hitherto  adopted  to  combat  the  famine  in 
Madras  was  discussed  and  subjected  to  some  adverse  criticism, 
the  fear  being  expressed  that  expenditure  was  more  profuse 
than  it  need  be,  and  that  stricter  economy  was  necessary. 
The  outcome  of  these  deliberations  was  the  deputation  of  Sir 
Richard  Temple,  who  had  had  famine  experience  in  Bengal 
in  1874,  to  the  Madras  Presidency. 

Sir  Richard  Temple  lost  no  time  in  setting  out.  He  first  His  views  in 
visited  Kurnool,  which  he  reached  via  Hyderabad,  and  then  ^^^'.'^  '°, 
toured  through  Bellary  and  Cuddapah.  In  the  latter  district, 
one-fourth  of  the  crop  having  been  saved,  the  distress  was 
in  Sir  Richard  Temple's  opinion  not  so  great  as  in  Bellary 
and  Kurnool.  At  the  time  of  his  visit  there  were  200,000 
persons  on  relief  out  of  an  estimated  total  population  of 
1,350,000.  This  was  held  to  be  too  large  a  proportion  to  be 
satisfactorily  accounted  for.  Under  the  Collector,  near 
headquarters,  the  management  was  stricter  than  at  Madana- 
palle  where  Sir  Richard  states  he  believed  an  excessive 
expenditure  was  being  incurred  as  to  which  reconsideration 
was  urgently  called  for.  So  far  as  this  district  was  concerned 
the  visit  of  Sir  Richard  Temple  had  three  main  results,  a 
reduction    in  the  scale  of  wages  paid  to  relief  workers,  the 


i^2 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.       exercise  of  greater   stringency    in   admitting  persons  to  the 
VIII.        works  and  the  discontinuance  of  the  purchase  of  grain  by 
The  Great  Government. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  intensity  of  the  famine 
steadily  increased,  the  distress  being  augmented  by  a  severe 
visitation  of  cholera  which  claimed  564  victims  in  the  second 
week  of  January.  In  the  same  week  the  official  returns  show 
that  1460  head  of  cattle  succumbed  through  privation  or 
disease.  The  course  of  the  famine  in  the  ensuing  months 
may  be  seen  at  a  glance  in  the  following  table : — 


pAMINE  OF 

1876-78. 

Distress 
increases  in 
1877. 


Month. 


Numbers  in  receipt  of  State  relief 
at  the  close  of  each  month. 


On  works. 


Gratui- 
tously. 


Total. 


(J  .y  o 


Average  price  in 
seers  per  rupee  of 


Ragi. 


Rice, 
2nd  sort. 


1877. 
January 
February 
March 
April 
May 
June 
July 
August 

September 

October 

November 


170,704 
67,728 
78,902 
51,192 
94,961 
120,053 
146,682 
148,903 

109,994 
43,609 
12,560 


893 

1,705 

6,129 

24,988 

33,629 

56,362 

118,328 

133,688 

"55,015 

78,798 

8,265 


171,597 

13 

8-00 

69.433 

5 

9-26 

85,031 

6 

10-04 

76,180 

6 

9-60 

128,590 

10 

8-35 

176,415 

13 

8-41 

265,010 

20 

6-18 

282,591 

21 

6-46 

265,009 

20 

8-25 

122,407 

9 

f  7-90 
1  14-22 

20,825 

2 

X  15-00 

700 
7'14 
7-8I 
8-10 
7-76 
6-92 
5-90 
5-54 
4-98' 
6-22 
6-22 
9-13 
5-60 
9-13 


The  large  reduction  in  the  number  of  relief  workers  in 
February  must  be  attributed  to  the  change  of  policy  that 
followed  Sir  Richard  Temple's  visit  to  the  district.  Every 
effort  was  henceforth  made  to  restrict  expenditure  as  far  as 
was  compatible  with  the  safety  of  the  people.  Large  numbers 
from  Cuddapah  and  the  adjoining  districts  were  drafted  to 
work  on  the  Buckingham  Canal  on  the  East  Coast.  Attempts  in 
this  direction  had  been  made  in  the  previous  year,  but  many 
of  the  labourers  had  come  back  again.  The  plan  was  now 
attended  by  greater  success  as  the  more  stringent  adminis- 
tration of  famine  relief  offered  the  workers  but  little  induce- 
ment to  return  to  the  district  till  prospects  improved.  Mean- 
while matters  grew  worse  as  new  difficulties  arose.  Cattle  for 
grain    transport    became    very    scarce    and    the    Collector's 

'  Bracketed  figures  show  the  highest  and  lowest  prices,  averages  not  being 
available. 


RAINFALL  AND  SEASONS  133 

proposal     that   the   feeding   of   cattle    with   prickly-pear  for        CHAP, 
fodder  should  be  sanctioned  as  a  relief  work  was  approved         VIU. 
by  the  Government.     In  Cuddapah  taluk  the  Special  Assistant  The  Great 
Collector,  Mr.  MacCartie,  was  very  successful  in  conducting      Ygyi^yg^ 

this   experiment,   by  which  means  numbers  of  useful  beasts  

which  would  have  otherwise  certainly  perished  were  pre- 
served. The  great  danger  that  while  the  bread-winners  were 
at  relief  works  their  families  at  home  would  die  of  starvation 
led  to  the  necessity  of  making  house  to  house  visitations  in 
all  villages  that  had  not  been  deserted,  and  village  officers 
were  held  responsible  for  bringing  to  notice  all  cases  of 
dangerous  want.  This  contributed  to  the  large  increase  in 
the  numbers  admitted  to  gratuitous  relief. 

The  failure  of  the  south-west  monsoon  once  more  intensified  J"°^  "-^ 
the  distress.  Its  immediate  effect  was  a  still  further  rise  of  1877. 
prices,  and  an  enormous  increase  in  the  numbers  dependent 
on  State  relief.  Towards  the  end  of  July  the  Collector^ 
wrote  as  follows  in  regard  to  the  very  critical  condition  to 
which  the  district  had  been  brought :  "  It  is  with  the  greatest 
reluctance,  and  after  waiting  until  what  I  consider  to  be  the 
last  safe  moment,  that  I  have  the  honour  to  apply  to  Govern- 
ment for  assistance,  in  order  to  meet  the  rapidly  increasing 
distress.  I  have,  in  previous  reports,  both  official  and  demi- 
official,  stated  my  opinion  that  a  failure  of  the  south-west 
monsoon  would  entail  the  most  serious  consequences,  and  have 
observed  that  in  this  case  Government  must  be  prepared  to 
meet  a  very  heavy  outlay.  I  and  those  under  me  have  worked 
on  in  the  hope  that  rain  would  come  and  all  would  be  well. 
I  now  see  but  little  chance  of  its  falling,  except  by  a  special 
dispensation  of  Providence.  Day  after  day  clouds  come  up 
only  to  disappear  with  the  sunset ;  the  crops  are  beginning 
to  wither  and  the  grass  to  dry  up.  Village  relief  is  assuming 
gigantic  proportions,  and  prices  are  steadily  and  surely 
rising.  Rain  may  come,  but  from  the  accounts  from  Bombay 
and  the  West  Coast  which  I  see  in  the  newspapers,  there  is 
but  very  little  chance  of  its  making  its  appearance.  A  fort- 
night more  of  the  present  weather  will  certainly  end  in  the 
destruction  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  dry  crops  of  the  district. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  say  what  the  effect  of  this 
will  be." 

Reviewing  its  resources  the  Government  apprehended  that 

with  the  depletion  of  local  stocks  of  grain  they  might   in   the 

near  future  have  whole  populations  on  their  hands  without 

the  prospect  of  being  able  to  carry  food  enough  to  keep  them 

1  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Frederick)  Price. 


134 


dTIDDAPAH 


CHAP. 
VIII. 

The  Great 

F.^MINE  OF 

1876-78. 


Rain  falls  in 
■September. 


The  cost 
of  the 
famine. 


Scarcities 

SUBSE- 
QUENT TO 

THE  Great 
Famine. 


alive.  The  Supreme  Government  was  notified  of  this  danger, 
and  early  in  August  the  Viceroy  determined  to  visit  Madras 
and  to  take  such  measures  as  might  be  necessary  to  ensure 
the  provision  of  adequate  transport  to  convey  food  to  the 
inland  districts.  The  Viceroy  left  Simla  for  Madras  on 
August  l6.  At  Poona,  w^here  he  halted  to  consult  with 
Sir  Richard  Temple  and  the  officers  of  the  Great  Indian 
Peninsula  Railway,  arrangements  were  made  for  pouring 
grain  into  the  Madras  Presidency  by  railway  at  the  rate  of 
from  1,000  to  1,200  tons  per  day.  All  other  traffic  was  to 
give  way  to  the  conveyance  of  grain.  The  main  result  of  the 
Viceroy's  tour  was  a  reorganization  of  the  famine  adminis- 
tration, which  was  placed  under  the  immediate  control  of  the 
Governor,  with  a  Personal  Assistant  accredited  by  the 
Government  of  India. 

The  climax  of  the  famine  had,  however,  been  reached. 
Rain  fell  early  in  September  and  was  seasonably  distributed 
through  that  and  the  following  month.  But  though  the  crisis 
was  passed  the  effect  was  not  immediate.  The  numbers  on 
gratuitous  relief  in  the  district  reached  the  highest  figure  in 
September,  about  II^  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  ;  but  in 
October  there  was  a  marked  fall  in  prices  and  thousands  of 
people  on  relief  were  enabled  to  return  to  work  in  the  fields. 
Thenceforth  the  distress  steadily  abated,  though  the  effect 
of  a  famine  of  such  unexampled  intensity  necessitated  the 
continuance  of  relief  throughout  the  following  year,  and  that 
mainly  gratuitous. 

The  district  of  Cuddapah  as  then  constituted,  being  the 
largest  of  those  principally  affected  by  the  famine,  it  follows 
that  the  expenditure  incurred  on  account  of  relief  operations 
was  enormous.  The  loss  of  revenue  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate  with  any  exactitude,  but  the  charges  directly  due 
to  relief  and  excluding  expenditure  on  extra  establishment 
amounted  to  nearly  sixty  lakhs  of  rupees. 

During  the  thirty-five  years  that  have  elapsed  since  the 
great  famine  many  seasons  have  been  far  from  satisfactory, 
but  famine  conditions  have  never  since  prevailed  over  the 
whole  district  at  any  one  time.  In  1891  it  was  Rayachoti 
and  the  other  taluks  of  the  old  sub-division  now  belonging  to 
other  districts  which  suffered  most  severely.  Over  the  rest 
of  the  district  distress  was  only  apparent  in  parts  of  Badvel 
and  Sidhout  and  the  south-east  of  Cuddapah.  On  the  other 
hand  the  famine  of  1896-97  was  far  heavier  in  the  main 
division  than  in  Rayachoti  and  the  rest  of  the  sub-division, 
where  distress  was  not  acute.     More  recently,  the  years   1898 


RAINFALL  AND  SEASONS  135 

to  1901   were   markedly  unfavourable,  and   again    in  1904-05       CHAP, 
the  rainfall   in  the  black    cotton    country  was  very  defective.         VIIL 
Finally,  seasonal  remissions   were  very    considerable    in    all   Scarcities 
parts  of  the  district  in  1908-09  and  1911-12.  subse- 

The  rainfall   of   1890,   especially   in  the  sub-division  and    .j-^g  Great 
particularly  in  the  latter  portion  of  the  year,  was  very  scanty,      Famine. 

while  both  the   monsoons  of  1891   were  almost  total  failures.  

The  prices  of  the  principal  food-grains  began  to  exceed  the 
normal  rates  about  the  end  of  July  1891,  and  many  of  the 
working  classes  soon  felt  the  pinch.  With  the  failure  of  the  The  famine 
south-west  monsoon  in  1891  distress  became  prominent  in  "^  ^^^i  92- 
Rayachoti  taluk,  where  the  scarcity  of  drinking  water  was 
severely  felt,  as  also  in  Badvel.  In  August  1891  relief  opera- 
tions were  opened  in  Rayachoti  and  a  kitchen  was  started 
at  the  taluk  headquarters  for  the  distribution  of  cooked  food 
to  the  deserving  poor.  By  the  middle  of  December  prices 
reached  famine  rates,  and  relief  works  were  opened  about  the 
middle  of  January  1892  in  the  taluks  of  Badvel  and  Sidhout, 
and  some  four  months  later  in  that  of  Cuddapah.  It  was 
during  this  famine  that  operations  were  begun  on  the  Sagiler 
project^  in  Badvel  taluk,  some  four  thousand  people  being 
employed  daily  thereon  from  April  till  the  end  of  August 
1892.  Prior  to  the  latter  date  all  other  relief  works  in  the 
district  had  been  closed  with  the  favourable  opening  of  the 
south-west  monsoon,  the  promise  of  which  was  not  belied,  in 
the  month  of  June.  A  plentiful  rainfall  soon  alla3^ed  all 
anxiety,  and  normal  conditions  were  rapidly  re-established. 

A  notable  feature  of  this  famine  was  the  large  measure  of 
relief  afforded,  especially  in  the  sub-division,  by  the  numerous 
advances  made  to  the  owners  of  land  under  the  Land  Improve- 
ment Act,  for  the  sinking  of  wells.  Nearly  four  and  a  half 
lakhs  of  rupees  were  disbursed  on  this  account  in  the  sub- 
division alone,  from  January  1891,  and  by  the  end  of  the 
following  year  nearly  seven  hundred  wells  had  been  com- 
pleted, and  some  four  thousand  were  reported  to  be  under 
construction. 

In  fasli  1306  there  was  again  distress  amounting  to  famine.  Jf  jSqg *q"/ 
Both  monsoons  were  very  defective,  especially  in  the  black 
cotton  country  and  adjacent  tracts,  where  the  total  rainfall 
amounted  to  scarcely  more  than  half  the  average.  Conditions 
were  not  so  serious  in  the  eastern  division  of  the  district,  but 
in  the  following  fasli  the  persistence  of  the  bad  season  neces- 
sitated the  grant  of  dry  remissions  in  more  than  forty  villages 
of  the  Badvel  taluk.     The  "sub-division,"  now  represented  only 

•  See  Chapter  IV. 


IS6 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP. 
VIII. 

Scarcities 

SUBSE- 
QUENT TO 

THE  Great 
Famine. 


by  the  taluk  of  Rayachoti,  suffered  least.  In  the  Jammala- 
madugu,  Proddatur  and  Cuddapah  taluks  it  was  estimated 
that  the  crop  was  entirely  lost  on  33  per  cent,  of  the  total  area 
sown  and  on  22  per  cent,  the  yield  was  "  from  I  to  4  annas." 
Stocks  appear  to  have  been  sufficient,  but  those  in  the  hands 
of  merchants  had  been  largely  depleted  to  meet  the  demand 
which  had  arisen  earlier  in  Bombay  and  the  Central  Provinces. 
Very  heavy  exports  were  made  up  to  November  1896,  Then 
when  local  conditions  declared  themselves  unfavourable  the 
merchants  refused  to  sell,  while  the  ryots  also  would  not  bring 
their  surplus  stocks  to  market  owing  to  the  general  apprehen- 
sion that  a  three  years'  famine  was  impending.  Prices  were 
thus  artificially  inflated  and  the  labouring  and  non-agri- 
cultural classes  were  greatly  pinched  by  the  dearness  of  grain 
as  well  as  the  lack  of  labour  in  the  fields  owing  to  the  failure 
of  the  north-east  monsoon.  In  November  1896  relief  works, 
comprising  mainly  road-construction,  were  opened  in  each 
of  the  taluks  of  Proddatur,  Jammalamadugu  and  Pulivendla. 
There  was  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  at  the  end  of  November,  and 
as  agricultural  operations  were  begun  the  numbers  on  relief 
works  fell  rapidly.  But  the  drought  quickly  set  in  again 
and  the  month  of  February  saw  the  end  of  all  hopes  of  a 
satisfactory  harvest.  Relief  works  were  accordingly  opened  at 
six  more  stations  in  March  1897,  and  the  numbers  employed  at 
the  end  of  the  month  amounted  to  eleven  and  a  half  thousand 
as  against  two  and  a  half  thousand  at  the  end  of  February. 
In  April  the  average  daily  number  of  relief  workers   in  the 

taluks  principally  affected  is 
noted  in  the  margin.  There- 
were  practically  no  agricultural 
operations  in  May,  and  no 
crops  were  on  the  ground 
except  here  and  there  under  wells.  The  numbers  on  relief 
works  therefore  steadily  increased,  and  from  June  to  August 
eight  more  works  were  opened  in  the  affected  taluks.  Private 
charity  contracted  considerably  and  those  incapable  of  work 
suffered  from  acute  distress.  Relief  kitchens  were  accordingly 
opened  in  May  1897.  During  this  and  the  following  month 
the  famine  reached  its  climax.  The  south-west  monsoon 
broke  in  June,  and  the  rainfall  was  well  distributed  over  the 
next  four  months,  bein>?  heaviest  in  August.  By  the  end  of 
September  the  rainfall  throughout  the  district  was  much 
above  the  average  and  almost  all  the  irrigation  sources  had 
received  plentiful  supplies.  These  favourable  prospects  were 
accompanied  by  the  gradual  cessation  of  relief,  and  normal 


Proddatur     

...     4,447 

Jamiiialamadugu 

...     6,164 

Pulivendla 

...     8,654 

Cuddapah    

...     7,088 

RAINFALL  AND    SEASONS  137 

conditions  were  practically  restored  by  the  end  of  October.  CHAP. 
Taking  account  of  the  liberal  remissions  and  suspensions  of        VIIL 

revenue  as  well  as  direct  expenditure,  the  famine  in  the  four  Scarcities 
taluks  mainly  affected  cost  the  State  more  than  fourteen  lakhs       subse- 

QUENT   TO 

of  rupees.     Relief  was  undoubtedly  generous  and  the  Collector  the  Great 
stated  that  no  change  had  been  wrought    by  the  distress  in      Famine. 

the  economic   condition    of  the^  people.      A   later  Collector         

referred  to  the  famine  as  the  "  fat  cooly  famine,"  and 
stated  that  he  "feared  the  famine  of  1 897  had  demoralised 
the  people." 

The  position  of  the   district  in  the  valley  of  the  Penner  Floods. 
and  its  tributaries,  many  of  which  drain   the  upland  of  the 
Mysore  plateau,  render  it  specially  liable  to  sudden  inunda- 
tions following   on  an  excessive   rainfall.     Many  such  have 
been  recorded  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century. 

The  earliest  of  which  particulars  have  come  down  to  us  is   I"  the  first 
that  reported  by  Munro  to  have  destroyed  in  October   1804  tliTioth  ' 
most  of  the  tanks  over  the  Ceded  Districts  from  Harpanahalli  century. 
in  the  west  to  Chitvel  in  the  east.     As  much  as  Rs.  6^  lakhs 
were  spent  on  repairing  the  damage  done  to  tanks  and  river 
channels  in  the  four  districts  by  this  storm. 

Thirteen  years  later,  in  September  1817,  a  very  heavy  fall 
of  rain  occurred,  causing  damage  principally  in  the  taluks 
north  of  the  Penner.  The  river  itself  burst  its  banks  and  is 
said  to  have  extended  in  some  places  to  a  width  of  about  three 
miles.  No  sooner  had  the  district  recovered  from  this  inunda- 
tion than  the  north-east  monsoon  broke  with  a  torrential 
downpour  on  the  night  of  October  13  and  continued  for  two 
days,  when  the  rain  became  lighter.  Again  on  October  25 
it  began  to  ram  more  heavily  than  ever  and  lasted  well  into 
November.  Every  taluk  seems  to  have  suffered,  especially 
Sidhout.  On  this  occasion  Badvel  tank,  the  finest  in  the 
district,  nearly  breached  in  three  tlaces.  but  was  saved  by 
the  Tahsildar  who  put  tne  whole  village  to  work  and  kept 
them  labouring  for  three  days.  Fifty-three  tanks  in  Raya- 
choti  taluk  breached  or  suffered  serious  damage.  The  next 
year,  1818,  proved  very  unhealthy  owing  to  the  excessive  rain 
which  fell  almost  without  cessation  during  the  rainy  months 
of  both  monsoons.  The  floods  of  these  two  years  caused 
considerable  damage  to  the  crops  and  remissions  of  revenue 
were  extensively  granted. 

On  May  8  and  9,  1820,   there   was  another  violent  storm 
which  damaged  over  a  hundred  tanks  in  Rayachoti  taluk  and 
caused  the  loss  of  a  number  of  cattle  and  the  death  of  twenty 
persons  in  Pullampet  taluk. 
18 


138 


CUDDAPAH 


Excessive 
rains  in 
1874. 


CHAP.  It   was    also   in    May   that   the   heavy    rains   fell    which 

VIII,        occasioned  such  extensive  damage  in  the  year   1851.     The 

Floods.      Penner  and  Chitravati  came  down  in  full  flood  and  the  village 

- —         of  Chautapalle  which  lies  between  the  two  rivers  near  their 

Great  storm      confluence  was    swept   away.     Parnapalle,  situated  on   the 

ofi85i,  bank  of  the  Chitravati  in  the  extreme  west  of  Pulivendla 

taluk,  was  also  partially  destroyed.     The  destruction  of  these 

villages  was  attended  with  The  loss  of  hundreds  of  lives,  as 

the  rivers  rose  so  rapidly  that  the  inhabitants  had  no  time 

to  escape. 

The  year  1874  is  remarkable  for  an  excessive  rainfall  in 
both  monsoons.  A  violent  storm  occurred  in  the  first  week 
in  May  and  from  the  following  month  till  nearly  the  end  of 
September  the  black  cotton  taluks  received  about  twice  their 
normal  supply  of  rain.  But  the  heaviest  downpour  took  place 
at  the  bursting  of  the  north-east  monsoon  in  the  second  half 
of  October.  In  parts  of  the  district  the  rain  that  fell  from  the 
23rd  to  the  25th  amounted  to  as  much  as  twenty  inches. 
Considerable  damage  was  done  to  the  railway  bridges,  and 
traffic  between  Rajampet  and  Kondapuram  was  suspended 
for  some  weeks. 
The  floods  The   last   occasion  of  an   abnormal  fall  of  rain   was  in 

in  1903.  November  1903.     The   rain    began  on   the  early  morning  of 

November  6.  A  fall  of  four  inches  was  registered  during 
the  morning  and  rain  continued  all  day.  By  sunset  the 
Bugga  Vanka  at  Cuddapah  was  within  three  feet  of  its  banks 
when,  owing  to  the  breach  of  some  tanks  higher  up,  it 
suddenly  rose  six  feet  and  flooded  the  greater  part  of  the 
town.  The  waters  began  to  subside  at  8  o'clock,  but  only 
after  many  of  the  less  substantial  houses  had  been  washed 
away.  The  water  rose  to  the  foundations  of  the  Sessions 
Court  and  the  Collector's  cutcherry,  and  the  Gunta  bazaar 
between  these  two  buildings  suffered  very  severely.  It  was 
reported  two  days  afterwards  that  461  houses  had  been 
destroyed  and  756  badly  damaged.  The  loss  in  house 
property  was  estimated  at  Rs.  30,000,  and  in  moveables  at 
another  Rs.  25,000. 

Outside  Cuddapah  town  the  principal  damage  was  in 
Pullampet  taluk  where  the  railway  line  was  washed  away  to 
a  length  of  three  quarters  of  a  mile  owing  to  the  breaching  of 
the  Utukur  tank.  Large  numbers  of  small  tanks  also  burst  in 
Rayachoti  taluk. 

The  standing  crops  were  so  much  damaged  that  remission 
of  revenue  on  this  account  was  granted  to  the  extent  of 
twenty-five  thousand  rupees. 


fUBLIC  HEALTH 


m 


CHAPTER  IX. 
PUBLIC  HEALTH. 


General  Health  —  Plague  —  Cholera  —  Small-pox  —  Malaria — 
Infirmities  —  Vaccination.  Medical  Institutions  —  Public — 
Private. 

In  the  matter  of  public  health  it  is  probable  that  Cuddapah   CHAP.  IX. 
district  has  reaped  some  advantage  from  the  recent  contrac-     General 
tion  of  its  limits.     In  the  years  1903  and  1904  the  introduction      Health. 

of  plague  into  the  district  is  recorded  to  have  been   due  on         

both  occasions  to  importation  from  Mysore  into  Madanapalle 
taluk.  Malaria  is  also  more  prevalent  in  Kadiri  taluk  and  the 
Pller  division  of  Vayalpad  taluk  than  in  any  part  of  the 
Cuddapah  district  as  now  constituted. 

The  nine  taluks  of  which  the  district  is  now  formed  have  l^'ague. 
been  practically  free  of  plague  during  the  present  century, 
except  for  the  outbreajc  in  Cuddapah  town  in  191 2.  Two 
imported  cases  from  Adoni  were  recorded  in  1902-  In  the 
year  1903  a  very  few  imported  cases  occurred  in  the  taluks  of 
Proddatur,  Badvel  and  Pullampet,  and  in  the  following  year 
there  was  a  single  suspicious  case,  also  imported,  at  a  village 
in  the  vicinity  of  Cuddapah.  Again  in  1905  a  case  of  the 
same  sort  occurred  in  Buddayapalle  in  Cuddapah  taluk. 
With  these  exceptions  the  only  recent  visitation  of  plague  to 
be  recorded  is  that  which  affected  the  municipality  in  1912. 
The  disease  broke  out  on  August  31.  It  began  to  abate  at 
the  opening  of  the  new  year  and,  largely  owing  to  the  effect- 
ive measures  taken  to  stamp  it  out,  finally  disappeared  in 
February.  During  the  three  months  immediately  following 
its  outbreak  the  plague  was  virulent,  but  the  destruction  of 
rats  and  the  inoculation  of  the  people,  to  which  they  readily 
submitted,  served  to  mitigate  its  ravages.  The  number  of 
deaths  was  one  hundred  and  twenty-two. 

Cholera  is  an  annual  visitant  to  the  district,  and  seems  to  Cholera, 
affect  Pullampet  taluk  more  seriously  than  other  parts.  Rajam- 
pet  suffers  regularly  every  year  and  other  towns  and  popu- 
lous villages  in  the  vicinity  of  the  railway  are  very  prone  to 
receive  and  spread  the  disease.  Probably  not  much  improve- 
ment is  to  be  looked  for  until  the  principles  of  sanitation  are 


140 


CUDDAPAM 


CHAP.   TX. 

General 
Health 


Small-pox. 


Malaria. 


better  apprehended  by  the  general  public.  With  all  the  will 
in  the  world  to  remedy  defects  pointed  out  by  the  sanitary 
authorities  little  can  be  effected  by  the  presidents  of  taluk 
boards  and  chairmen  of  unions  in  the  face  of  general  apathy, 
if  not  opposition.  Another  difficulty  is  that  really  effective 
steps  in  the  direction  of  sanitation  entail  heavy  expenditure 
such  as  the  local  boards  are  often  unable  to  meet.  During 
the  last  decade  the  heaviest  mortality  from  the  disease  was  in 
the  year  1908-09,  when  the  number  of  deaths  amounted  to 
more  than  6,500.  The  year  1906-07  was  nearly  as  calamitous, 
when  the  figure  reached  5,746.  The  municipality  used  to  be 
subject  to  terrible  epidemics  of  cholera,  but  since  the  intro- 
duction of  pipe  water  in  1890  mortality  from  this  cause  has 
very  markedly  decreased. 

Fewer  victims  are  claimed  by  small -pox,  which  is  much 
less  feared  by  the  people  than  cholera  owing  to  the  larger 
proportion  of  recoveries.  But  deaths  occur  from  this  disease 
every  year,  and  the  annual  figures  show  that  the  worst  visita- 
tions synchronize  with  the  severer  outbreaks  of  cholera.  If 
recrudescences  of  these  diseases  are  referable  to  the  same 
cause,  it  is  probably  to  be  found  in  some  climatic  vagary, 
such  as  a  defective  rainfall  or  unseasonable  weather,  to  which 
a  people  accustomed  to  time  meteorological  changes  with 
exactitude  cannot  easily  adapt  itself.  The  virulence  of  small- 
pox has  been  considerably  abated  by  the  extension  of  vacci- 
nation in  recent  times.  Fatalities  from  this  disease  number 
but  a  few  hundreds  in  a  year  when  cholera  claims  thousands. 
The  number  of  annual  admissions  to  medical  institutions 
owing  to  fever  affords  no  very  reliable  criterion  of  its  preva- 
lence in  the  district.  On  the  other  hand,  after  making  every 
allowance  for  the  inaccuracy  of  village  registration  as  to  the 
causes  of  death  and  a  propensity  to  describe  as  fever  all 
disorders  not  clearly  assignable  to  some  other  origin,  it  must 
be  admitted  that  malaria  is  endemic  in  many  parts  of  the 
district.  Cuddapah  itself  has  an  unfortunate  notoriety  in  this 
respect  and  the  unsparing  efforts  made  during  the  last  forty 
years  to  improve  the  health  of  the  town  by  paying  greater 
attention  to  sanitation  and  prohibiting  wet  cultivation  within 
municipal  limits  have  only  been  partially  successful.  In 
recent  years  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  improvement  has  been 
fully  sustained,  and  the  problem  of  freeing  Cuddapah  from 
malaria  continues  to  engage  the  attention  of  the  authorities. 
Outside  the  municipality  parts  of  Pulivendla  taluk  are  very 
feverish.  In  the  eastern  division  malaria  is  chiefly  prevalent 
in  the  south   of   Sidhout  taluk    and   the    north   of   Pullampet 


PUBLIC    HEALTH  14! 

while   the    most   unhealthy    parts  of  Badvel    and  Proddatur  CHAP.   IX. 
are  at  the  foot  of  the  Nallamalais.  General 

Of  incurable  maladies  or  infirmities  statistics  were  obtained      Health. 

at   the    last    census   in  respect  of  insanity,  blindness,   deaf-         

mutism  and  leprosy.  It  is  questionable  if  the  returns  relating  l"firn"ties. 
to  leprosy  and  insanity  are  of  much  value  in  point  of  accuracy. 
The  number  of  lepers  in  the  district  is  recorded  as  ninety- 
six,  of  whom,  as  we  have  seen  above,^  some  thirty  or  forty 
are  inmates  of  the  Leper  Asylum  at  Krupapalle.  The  figure 
given  is  almost  certainly  below  the  mark,  as  the  average 
number  of  leper  patients  annually  treated  in  the  Cuddapah 
hospital  in  the  first  decade  of  this  century  amounted  to  forty- 
four,  which  one  would  suppose  can  only  be  a  fraction  of  the 
total  numbers  afflicted  with  the  disease.  As  to  insanity,  even 
admitting  its  relativity,  the  numbers  returned,  which  amount 
to  less  than  two  per  ten  thousand  of  the  population,  appear  to 
fall  far  short  of  the  reality.  Even  among  that  portion  of  the 
ryot  population  of  about  half  the  district,  with  which  the 
present  writer  came  into  personal  contact  during  the  recent 
resettlement,  casesof  insanity,  ranging  from  weak-mindedness 
to  idiocy,  were  sufficiently  numerous  to  appear  remarkable. 
As  the  census  included  in  the  category  of  blindness  only 
the  completely  blind,  and  in  that  of  deaf-mutism  only  those 
entirely  devoid  of  speech  or  hearing,  their  classification 
presented  less  difficulty,  though  it  lacks  scientific  value  in 
the  absence  of  any  distinction  between  those  congenitally 
defective  and  others.  In  Cuddapah  district  as  in  most  others 
District     population,      893,998     ^^^   deafmutes  are  more  numerous 

Deaf-mutes        797     than  the  blind-  The  figure  recorded 

Blind       603     at   the    census    are    given    in    the 

margin. 

Vaccination  is  compulsory  only  in  Cuddapah  town  and  the  Vaccination, 
fourteen  unions  of  the  district.  Outside  the  municipality  the 
staff  employed  consists  of  three  deputy  inspectors  and  twenty- 
four  vaccinators,  the  cost  of  the  latter  establishment  being, 
as  elsewhere,  debitable  to  local  funds.  Under  recent  orders 
the  vaccinators  now  work  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
the  taluk  boards  and  not,  as  previously,  under  that  of  the 
district  board. 

The  Municipal   hospital  at  Cuddapah   is   the  only  public     Medical 
institution  of  its  kind  in  the  district.     It  was  built  in  1872  and     ^^^'^['^y- 
is   controlled  by   the  municipality,   an    annual    contribution   p^J-^^   " 
being    made    from  Local  funds   towards   the   expense  of  its 
upkeep.      A  maternity  ward  and  septic  sheds  have  recently 

1   See  Chapter  Hi. 


TIOXS. 


142 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP-  IX. 
Medical 

Institu- 
tions. 


Private. 


been  constructed  from  funds  allotted  by  Government.  There 
are  eight  dispensaries  in  the  district  maintained  by  Local 
funds,  which  are  located  at  the  following  places  :  Proddatur, 
Jammalamadugu,  Pulivendla,  Vempalle,  Rayachoti,  Rajam- 
pet,  Sidhout  and  Badvel.  The  total  number  of  patients 
treated  at  the  local  fund  dispensaries  during  the  year  1912-13 
amounted  to  65,274.  The  Railway  Company  maintains  a 
dispensary  at  Nandalur. 

The  only  private  bodies  which  control  medical  institutions 
in  the  district  are  the  Protestant  Missions,  of  which  a  general 
account  has  already  been  given. ^  The  principal  institution 
of  this  kind  is  the  Jammalamadugu  hospital,  which  belongs 
to  the  London  Mission,  and  was  constructed  in  1896.  The 
mission  had  associated  itself  with  medical  work  since  1891 
and  this  branch  of  its  activities  extended  so  rapidly  under  the 
able  direction  of  Dr.  T.  V.  Campbell,  that  the  construction 
of  a  hospital  for  the  accommodation  of  patients  and  their  more 
effective  treatment  became  in  a  few  years  a  paramount  neces- 
sity. Additions  and  improvements  to  the  hospital  have  since 
been  made  from  time  to  time  and  it  is  now  a  very  commo- 
dious building.  The  medical  staff  of  the  mission  comprises  a 
European  doctor  in  charge,  and  a  lady  nursing  superintendent. 
In  1905  the  mission  started  a  medical  school,  in  which  the 
course  of  instruction  lasts  four  years.  By  recruitment  from 
among  such  students  as  emerge  satisfactorily  from  this 
training  the    mission  has  been  enabled   to  establish  branch 

hospitals,  of  which  there  are  now 
four.  Particulars  of  their  location 
and  the  years  in  which  they  were 
respectively  established  are  given 
in  the  margin. 

The  Lutheran  Mission  maintains  a  small  dispensary  at 
Kodur,  as  well  as  the  Leper  Asylum  at  Krupapalle  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made.  There  is  also  a  busy 
dispensary  at  Kalasapad  belonging  to  the  S.P.G.  Mission. 


Kamalapuram 
Kantalam 
Simhadripuram 
Mavalur    . . . 


1909 
1909 
I910 
1914 


See  Chapter  IIL 


EDUCATION 


143 


CHAPTER  X. 
EDUCATION. 


Census  Statistics — Progress  since  1901 — Education  according  to 
religions.  Educational  Institutions — High  schools — Lower 
secondary  schools — Education  by  the  missions. 

In  regard  to  education  the  foundation  of  the  formidable 
structure  of  statistics  elaborated  at  the  census  is  '  literacy,' 
defined  as  the  ability  of  a  person  to  write  a  letter  and  read 
a  reply  thereto.  Measured  by  this  standard  the  Deccan  is 
educationally  the  most  backward  division  of  the  Presidency 
except  the  Agency,  but  within  this  division  Cuddapah  district 
is  the  most  advanced. 

Of  the  male  population  of  the  district  more  than  ten  per 
cent,  are  literate,  but  of  women  and  girls  only  sixty-four  in 
every  ten  thousand.  The  educational  progress  of  the  total 
population  in  recent  years  is  marked  by  an  increase  of  eight 
per  thousand  over  the  number  returned  as  literate  in  1901. 
Though  not  a  remarkable  advance  it  may  be  regarded  as 
satisfactory,  for  it  compares  favourably  with  that  made  by  six 
other  districts  of  the  Presidency  outside  the  Deccan. 

As  elsewhere,  the  Christians  comprise  a  larger  proportion 
of  literate  persons  than  any  other  religious  community. 
Secular  instruction  constitutes  so  important  a  branch  of 
the  Christian  Missionary's  activities  that  the  acceptance  of 
Christianity  practically  brings  the  convert  within  reach  of 
education.  It  also  secures  to  women  educational  advantages 
as  yet  denied  to  their  Hindu  and  Musalman  sisters,  so  that 
the  proportion  of  Christian  women  and  girls  who  can  read 
and  write  is  more  than  nine  times  that  of  the  total  female 
population  of  the  district.  As  in  most  of  the  Deccan,  the 
percentage  of  Musalmans  who  are  literate  is  somewhat  below 
the  corresponding  figure  for  Hindus.  In  other  parts  of  the 
Presidency  the  reverse  is  generally  the  case. 

The  district  contains  only  two  upper  secondary  schools. 
One  of  these  is  the  Municipal  High  School  at  Cuddapah. 
This  institution,  which  was  founded  in  April  1858,  was 
originally  known  as  the  Government  Zillah  School  and  was 
for  many  years  maintained  and  managed  by  Government. 


CHAP.  X. 

Census 
Statistics. 


Progress 
since  igoi. 


Education 
according 
to  religions 


Educa- 
tional 
Institu- 
tions. 

High 

schools. 


144 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  X. 

Educa- 
tional 
Institu- 
tions. 


Lower 

secondary 

schools. 


Education 
by  the 
missions. 


When  a  proposal  was  made  later  on  that  the  municipality 
should  assume  the  management  and  support  of  the  school, 
that  body  pleaded  inability  to  bear  the  whole  cost  of  main- 
tenance but  agreed  to  defray  a  moiety  thereof.  The  school 
accordingly  came  under  the  management  of  the  municipality 
in  1885,  but  half  the  cost  continued  to  be  met  by  Government. 
Some  years  after  this  arrangement  had  come  into  force  the 
municipality,  owing  to  the  increase  of  its  expenditure  in  other 
directions  of  public  utility,  contrived  to  divest  itself  of  all 
pecuniary  obligations  in  regard  to  the  school,  so  that  its 
upkeep  again  devolved  entirely  upon  Government,  though  the 
management  was  retained  as  before  in  the  hands  of  the 
municipality.  Some  two  hundred  and  thirty  boys  are  edu- 
cated in  this  school,  to  which  is  affiliated  an  elementary 
institution  (infant  to  fourth  standard)  known  as  the  '  branch 
secondary  school.'  This  latter,  which  contains  243  pupils,  is 
both  managed  and  maintained  by  the  municipality. 

The  other  upper  secondary  institution  is  the  National  High 
School  at  Proddatur.  This  is  under  private  management 
and  has  recently  come  under  the  control  of  the  Theosophical 
Society. 

There  are  two  lower  secondary  schools  in  the  district, 
namely,  at  Proddatur  and  Nandalur.  They  are  under  the 
management,  respectively,  of  the  Proddatur  and  vSidhout  Taluk 
Boards  and  contain  in  the  aggregate  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  pupils.  The  Campbell  Memorial  School  at  Jammala- 
madugu  is  also  an  incomplete  secondary  school,  but  being  of 
recent  institution  it  has  not  yet  actually  received  Government 
recognition. 

The  district  contains  one  training  school  for  elementary 
teachers,  namely,  the  Government  institution  at  Rayachoti 
which  was  opened  in  1912. 

In  Cuddapah  district,  as  elsewhere,  education  is  an  import- 
ant branch  of  the  activities  of  the  Protestant  Missionary 
Societies.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  Campbell 
Memorial  School  at  Jammalamadugu.  This  institution  was 
founded  in  1913  as  a  permanent  memorial  of  the  labours  of 
the  late  Rev.  W.  Howard  Campbell  on  behalf  of  the  London 
Mission  in  this  district.  The  same  mission  also  maintains  a 
caste  girls'  school  in  Jammalamadugu,  which  has  been  so  well 
patronised  that  its  premises  are  being  extended.  The  Mission 
Boarding  School  which  accommodates  one  hundred  and 
forty  Christian  girls  drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  district 
was  originally  situated  in  Cuddapah,  but  was  removed  to 
Jammalamadugu    in    1898    whither    the    lady     missionaries 


EDUCATION 


145 


migrated  owing  to  the  unhealthiness  of  the  former  station- 
The  school  first  started  in  the  district  by  the  London  Mission 
was  their  first-grade  elementary  school  which  is  situated  in 
the  part  of  Cuddapah  town  known  as  Nagarajupet,  It  dates 
from  the  early  attempts  of  the  mission  to  spread  education  in 
the  town  and  neighbourhood  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
In  connection  with  this  institution  there  is  a  boarding  school 
for  Christian  boys.  These  belong  mostly  to  the  Mala  com- 
munity and  are  selected  from  the  most  promising  material  in 
the  Christian  congregations  of  the  villages.  They  remain 
generally  for  two  or  three  years,  after  which  they  are  drafted 
to  other  schools  of  the  society  in  Bellary  or  Gooty  for  further 
instruction. 

In  its  Kalasapad  district  the  S.P.G.  mission  maintains 
about  forty  elementary  schools,  to  the  principal  of  which, 
situated  at  Kalasapad,  are  attached  two  hostels,  in  which 
thirty  Christian  boys  and  thirty-nine  Christian  girls  are 
boarded.  Of  the  total  number  of  pupils  on  the  rolls  of  the 
S.P.G.  schools  more  than  thirty  per  cent,  are  girls. 

The  Lutheran  Mission  established  at  KodGr  maintains 
eight  primary  schools  containing  in  the  aggregate  some  two 
hundred  and  twenty  pupils. 


CHAP.  X. 

Educa- 
tional 
Institu- 
tions. 


19 


146 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAPTER  XI. 
LAND  REVENUE   ADMINISTRATION. 


CHAP.  XL 

Revenue 
History. 


Under 
Vijayanagar. 


Revenue  History — Under  Vijayanagar — In  the  17th  century  under 
the  Muhammadans — In  the  i8th  century — The  village  settle- 
ment of  1800-01 — Ryotwari  settlement  of  1801-02 — Triennial 
leases  proposed — Munro's  views  thereon — He  proposes  to 
reduce  existing  ryotwari  rates — Early  operations  of  the  Settle- 
ment Department.     The  Resettlement — Mr.    Moir" s   Reports 

Dry     lands — Wet    lands — The     sub-division — Dasabandham 

\vells — Financial  results.     Existing  Divisional  Charges. 

For  information  as  to  the  early  revenue  history  of  Cuddapah 
district  we  are  almost  entirely  dependent  on  Munro's  report, 
dated  I2th  August  1801,  in  which  he  himself  complains 
that  almost  all  accounts  and  records  had  been  destroyed 
during  the  constant  disorders.  "The  land,"  says  Munro, 
"seems  at  all  times  to  have  been  regarded  as  the  property  of 
the  State,  no  traces  can  be  discovered  of  its  ever  having 
been  that  of  the  cultivators  or  renters.  The  Enam  Sunnads 
of  the  Bijanuggar  ^  Rajas,  as  well  as  those  of  more  ancient 
princes,  universally  grant  the  soil  as  well  as  the  rent,  a  con- 
vincing proof  that  it  belonged  to  the  sovereign." 

The  Hindu  systems  of  land  revenue,  however,  never 
concerned  themselves  with  definitions  of  landed  property 
or  State  rights.  On  the  one  side  the  privileged  position 
attaching  to  the  man  who  first  cleared  the  soil  or  to  the  leader 
of  the  band  of  colonists  who  first  expropriated  the  aborigines 
was  more  or  less  conceded  to  their  descendants,  on  the  other 
the  State  passed  no  self-denying  ordinances  as  to  shares, 
increments,  or  taxation  on  improvements.  In  its  best  days 
the  Vijayanagar  Empire  showed  considerable  activity  in 
making  improvements,  building  tanks  and  channels  and  in 
opening  up  new  country.  To  this  period  of  settlement  prob- 
ably belongs  the  rise  of  the  Visapadi  villages,  a  curious 
feature  of  the  Cuddapah  province  referred  to  by  Munro,  who 
describes  them  as  follows:  "There  are  many  villages  in 
which  the  ryots  settle  among  themselves  the  exact  proportion 
of  the  whole  rent  that  each   individual  is  to  pay.     These  are 

1  Spelled  in  this  book  Vijayanagar. 


LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION  I47 

called  visapadi  or  'sixteenth'  villages  from  the  land  and  CHAP.  XI. 
rent  being  divided  into  sixteen  shares,  and  they  compose  a  Revenue 
considerable  part  of  the  Cuddapah  province,  besides  being  History. 
scattered,  though  more  thinly,  over  other  parts  of  the  country. 
When  the  season  of  cultivation  draws  near  all  the  ryots 
of  the  Visapadi  village  assemble  to  regulate  their  several 
rents  for  the  year  ....  They  ascertain  the  amount  of 
the  agricultural  stock  of  each  individual  and  of  the  whole 
body,  and  the  quantity  of  land  to  the  culture  of  which  it  is 
adequate,  and  they  divide  it  accordingly,  giving  to  each  man 
the  portion  which  he  has  the  means  of  cultivating  and  fixing 
his  share  of  the  rent,  and  whether  his  share  be  one  or  two- 
sixteenths  he  pays  this  proportion  whether  the  whole  rent  of 
the  village  be  higher  or  lower  than  last  year."  This  would 
seem  to  point  to  bands  of  colonists  originally  settling  on  the 
land  in  a  sort  of  agricultural  partnership,  and  doubtless  the 
joint  interest  and  responsibility  were  retained  in  later  times 
as  a  means  of  resisting  and  of  bearing  up  against  the  heavy 
assessments  imposed.  The  question  of  property  in  the  land 
and  to  whom  it  belongs  can  hardly  be  said  to  arise  when 
holdings  are  interchangeable  or  subject  to  redistribution. 
The  really  important  thing  is  the  division  of  the  produce 
which  as  far  as  the  ryots  are  concerned  under  the  visapadi 
system  was  regulated  by  the  contribution  made  to  the 
common  stock.  The  State,  however,  also  asserted  its  right 
to  a  share,  the  extent  of  which  the  State  itself  determined. 
Where  it  was  moderate  enough  to  allow  the  ryot  something 
over  and  above  the  cultivator's  expenses  and  profit  of  stock, 
the  feeling  of  attachment  to  and  of  private  property  in  his 
holding  would  naturally  arise.  This  implied,  however,  a 
limitation  of  the  State  share,  but  the  State  recognized  no 
limitation  except  such  as  arose  from  its  own  exigencies  and 
the  ability  of  the  ryot  to  pay.  "  According  to  tradition,"  says 
Munro,  "  it  was  paid  in  kind  in  the  proportion  of  half  the 
produce,  and  this  half  was  converted  for  money  at  a  price 
unfavourable  to  the  cultivator,  a  circumstance  which  must 
have  been  an  insurmountable  bar  not  only  to  the  establish- 
ment of  private  property  in  land  but  also  to  every  kind  of 
agricultural  improvement." 

It  was  not  likely  that  the  Muhammadan  conquerors  would   in  the  17th 
lessen  the  State  demand  and  we  find  that  the  kamil  assess-   century 
ment  introduced  under  the  Golconda  kings  about  the  begin-   Muham- 
ning  of  the  17th  century  was  based  on  the  same  principle  of  madans. 
the    equal  division  of  the  crop  between   Government  and  the 
cultivator.     It  was  founded  upon  an  actual  survey  which  took 


14^ 


CUDDAPAH 


History. 


CHAP.  XI.  four  years  to  complete.  As  all  rents  were  to  be  paid  in 
Revenue  money  the  equivalent  of  the  half  produce  in  kind  was  found 
by  taking  the  estimated  gross  produce  of  the  different  sorts  of 
dry  and  wet  land  and  converting  it  into  money  at  the  average 
price  of  the  preceding  ten  years.  The  cultivator  also  had  to 
bear  the  burden  of  certain  rusums  to  the  revenue  officers  such 
as  the  desmukh  and  the  dcspaude.  The  seeming  rigour  of  this 
settlement  under  which,  as  Munro  says,  the  ryot  could  not 
have  extended  his  cultivation  was  modified  by  the  action  of 
the  revenue  authorities  who  allowed  the  ryots  to  hold  more 
land  than  was  entered  in  the  accounts,  their  own  rusums 
being  proportionately  increased  thereby.  The  survey  was 
thus  gradually  obliterated  or  rendered  inoperative,  and  the 
revenue  system  really  had  no  other  principle  than  that  of 
taking  the  maximum  possible.  Aurangzebe  adopted  the 
kamil  but  had  to  make  allowances  for  loss.  This  was 
doubtless  due  to  the  depredations  of  the  poligars  who  took 
advantage  of  the  decay  of  the  Golconda  power  and  to  the 
opportunities  for  the  falsification  of  accounts  which  the 
change  of  governments  afforded  to  the  karnams.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  we  have  no  account  of  the  actual  collections 
made  under  this  revenue  system.  The  proportion  they  bore 
to  the  extravagantly  high  assessment  was  probably  ludicrous 
enough,  for  the  political  history  of  the  time  testifies  to  the 
absolute  lack  of  any  effective  central  authority. 

During  the  weak  administration  of  the  Nawabs  of 
Cuddapah  who  were  constantly  exposed  to  Mahratta  attacks 
from  without  and  the  insubordination  of  poligars  within  the 
district  much  revenue  could  never  have  been  realized.  Their 
political  successors,  Haidar  Ali  and  Tipu  Sultan,  were  of  a 
different  calibre.  Munro  frequently  alludes  to  their  adminis- 
tration in  laudatory  terms.  Of  their  more  vigorous  measures 
we  may  note  the  resumption  of  rusums  and  unauthorized 
inams,  the  discovery  and  speedy  repression  of  frauds  and, 
most  important  of  all,  the  partial  reduction  of  the  poligars 
who,  generally  in  collusion  with  the  local  revenue  officials, 
had  always  contrived  to  defraud  the  paramount  authority. 
By  this  means  the  kamil  standard  was  gradually  restored. 
Under  the  Nizam  (1792-1800)  misgovernment  resulted  as  usual 
in  decreased  cultivation  and  loss  of  revenue.  The  managers 
were  perpetually  being  changed,  rents  were  raised,  supple- 
mentary assessments  were  imposed  and  various  other  means 
adopted  of  raising  the  revenue.  These  violent  methods, 
however,  defeated  their  own  object.  "  It  was  not  so  much  the 
sum  raised  as  the  unskilful  mode  of  doing  it  that  has  exhausted 


In  the  iSth 
century. 


LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION  UO 

the  country,"  said  Munro.  Finally  when  the  intended  transfer  CHAP.  XI. 
of  the  Ceded  Districts  to  the  Company  became  known,  the  Revenue 
Nizam's  managers  resorted  to  every  form  of  exaction,  so  much  History. 
so  that  many  of  the  head  farmers  abandoned  their  villages. 

Of  the  districts  or  taluks  specified  by  Munro  in  his  report 
those  of  Chennur,  Chintakunta,  Kamalapuram,  Dhoor  and 
Jammalamadugu  correspond  roughly  to  the  north-west  and 
central  taluks  of  the  present  district  excluding  Pulivendla. 
The  following  table  compares  the  kamil  assessment  on  this 
tract  with  the  assessment  and  collections  at  different  times,  in 
Kantaraya  pagodas  : — 


Date  A.D. 

Name  of  Ruler. 

Amount  in 
pagodas. 

i6ro 

Golconda     Kings     (Kamil 
assessment). 

316,763 

1750-60 

..     Cuddapah  Nawabs  (assess- 
ment). 

208,184 

1782 

...     Haidar   (collections) 

255.752 

1788 

...     Tipu  (collections) 

269,499 

I 799- I 800 

,,     Nizam  (assessment) 

258,994 

Munro  took  charge  of  the  Ceded  Districts  so  late  in  the  The  village 
season  of  1800-OI  that  he  had  no  time  to  do  more  that  year  settlement 
than  conclude  in  haste  a  settlement  moiizawar  or  by  villages 
for  fasli  I2I0.  The  lump  assessment  to  be  paid  by  each 
village  was  roughly  arrived  at  by  assembling  the  headmen 
and  karnams  and  questioning  them  as  to  the  value  of  their 
own  and  the  adjoining  villages.  This  done,  these  officers 
were  made  "  severally  responsible  for  the  rent  (assessment)  of 
their  own  villages  and  jointly  for  those  of  the  district  (taluk)." 
The  Ceded  Districts  had  been  handed  over  by  the  Nizam  in 
return  for  a  subsidiary  force  to  be  stationed  in  his  territory,  and 
not  unnaturally  the  Directors  of  the  Company  expected  them  to 
bring  in  a  revenue  equal  to  their  scheduled  value.  Munro 
therefore  had  to  face  the  difficult  problem  of  meeting  these 
expectations — a  task  rendered  more  difficult  by  the  fact  that 
Tipu  had  placed  an  excessive  value  on  the  districts  surrend- 
ered by  him  in  1792 — and  at  the  same  time  of  securing  to  the 
ryot  a  regular  system  of  assessment  and  a  proprietary  interest 
in  the  soil. 

In  the  following  year,  fasli  I2II,  the  first  step  was  taken  Ryotwari 
by  introducing  the  "  kulwar "  or  ryotwari  settlement  by  settlement 
which  each  ryot  held  his  land  immediately  from  the  Govern- 
ment under  a  patta,  and  in  fasli  I2I2  the  natural  complement 
of  a  fieldwar  survey  and  assessment  was  commenced  and 
completed  in  1806.  Logically  this  should  have  resulted  in  each 
field  bearing  a  fixed  assessment,  and  Munro   drew  up  a  scale 


150 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XI. 

Revenue 
History. 


Triennial 

leases 

proposed. 


of  rates  for  the  diiferent  classes  under  which  the  fields  were 
classified.  Under  the  modern  system  the  individual  assess- 
ments would  have  been  totalled,  and  the  beriz  of  a  village  or 
taluk  arrived  at  after  comparing  these  totals  with  previous 
collections  and  such  other  checks  as  might  be  available. 
This  doubtless  was  what  Munro  desired.  A  standard  revenue, 
however,  was  expected  to  be  secured,  and  the  procedure 
actually  followed  was  the  exact  reverse  of  this.  As  each  taluk 
came  up  for  settlement  the  total  revenue  was  first  fixed.  This 
was  done  by  a  comparison  of  the  collections  made  under  the 
native  Governments  and  the  Company,  modified  by  the  existing 
circumstances  of  the  tract  and  expert  opinion.  This  total  was 
then  distributed  over  the  villages.  If  a  village  complained  of 
over-assessment,  the  claim  was  referred  to  the  principal  ryots 
of  other  villages  for  arbitrament  and,  if  allowed,  the  amount 
remitted  was  assessed  on  other  villages.  The  village  total  thus 
determined  was  then  distributed  among  the  ryots  in  accordance 
with  the  classification  of  the  fields  they  held.  It  was  thus  only 
in  the  last  stage  of  the  assessment  process  that  the  results  of 
the  classification  were  employed  and  it  consequently  lost  much 
of  its  value.  It  did  not  serve  to  correct  inequalities  in  the 
assessments  of  adjoining  villages  and  even  in  individual 
villages  the  nominal  rates  could  not  be  preserved.  If  the 
financial  results  of  the  application  of  these  rates  to  the 
classification  fell  short  of  the  village  total,  the  defect  had  to 
be  met  by  increasing  them  and  as  the  increase  could  only  be 
imposed  on  the  better  lands,  the  nominal  highest  rates  were 
often  greatly  exceeded.  As  far  as  possible,  however,  Munro 
carried  out  an  equalization  of  assessments,  while  his  vigorous 
and  sympathetic  administration  inspired  confidence  and 
encouraged  agriculture. 

For  the  next  seven  years  the  annual  revenue  was  settled  on 
the  ryotwari  principles  thus  inaugurated.  Loans  were  freely 
given  and  cowles  granted  for  waste  land,  and  we  find  that  by 
fasli  1215  (1805-06),  in  spite  of  the  series  of  bad  seasons  that 
immediately  followed  the  paimash,  the  revenue  of  the  whole 
of  the  Ceded  Districts  amounted  to  more  than  twenty  lakhs  of 
Kantaraya  pagodas,  which  was  the  standard  Munro  had  set 
himself  to  reach. 

In  1804,  however,  the  desirability  of  a  reversion  from  the 
ryotwari  to  a  permanent  settlement  began  to  be  discussed. 
The  Governor-General  in  that  year  sent  down  instructions  that 
in  settling  new  districts  the  "  Oudh  Regulations  "  should  be 
followed  with  such  modifications  as  local  circumstances 
required.     Under  these  each  village  was  rented  out  as  a  whole 


LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION  1 51 

for  three  years  at  a  fixed  annual  sum  to    zamindars  or   other  CHAP.  XI. 

proprietors  of  land,  and  the  renter  was  solely  responsible  for  Revenue 

the   payment  of  the  fixed    rent.     Munro,   among  others,   was  History. 

ordered  to  report  on  the  proposal  to  extend  this  system  to  the  

Ceded  Districts. 

His  reply  embodied  an  able  defence  of  the  ryotwari  settle-  Munro's 

ments  he  had  been  at  such   pains   to   introduce.     He   showed  ^'^^^ 

,.,„,,„..  ,  ,  .      ,  ,        thereon. 

that  in  the  Ceded  Districts,  where  there  were  no  zamindars,  the 
only  people  with  whom  permanent  settlements  could  be  con- 
cluded were  the  ordinary  heads  of  villages  and  that  they  were 
totally  unfit  for  the  position  into  which  it  was  desired  to  thrust 
them.  He  considered  that  so  far  from  promoting  any  improve- 
ment by  assisting  the  poorer  classes  with  advances  or  allowing 
them  to  participate  in  the  remissions  granted  by  Government, 
they  might  rather  be  expected  to  press  heavily  on  the  ryots 
and  reduce  them  to  a  worse  state  than  that  in  which  they  had 
found  them.  He  also  foresaw  the  even  worse  mismanagement 
and  oppression  which  would  ensue  if  a  speculator  or  adven- 
turer were  allowed  to  come  between  the  Government  officer 
and  the  cultivator.  A  settlement  direct  with  the  cultivators 
appeared  to  him  more  suited  to  the  manners  and  prejudices  of 
the  inhabitants,  because  it  was  the  system  which  had  always 
been  followed ;  more  adapted  to  the  narrowness  of  their 
circumstances  in  that  it  did  not  insist  on  the  same  amount  of 
revenue  being  paid  every  year  but  limited  it  by  the  actual 
extent  of  cultivation  ;  more  likely  to  reclaim  them  from  their 
wandering  habits  and  fix  them  to  their  fields  by  giving  them  an 
interest  in  the  improvement  of  these  ;  less  liable  to  embarrass 
the  Government  by  considerable  failures  ;  and  more  calculated 
to  promote  the  general  prosperity  of  the  country  and  the 
people.  Believing  also  that  the  system  of  great  estates  would 
raise  less  produce  from  the  soil  than  that  of  small  farms ;  that 
it  would  be  far  more  liable  to  failures  and  afford  less  security 
to  the  revenue  ;  that  it  would  be  less  agreeable  to  the  in- 
habitants; and  that  it  could  not  be  permanent  because  their 
laws  and  customs  continually  urged  on  the  rapid  division  of 
landed  property,  he  recommended  that  the  ryotwari  system, 
or  settlement  with  the  cultivators,  should  be  continued  as  a 
permanency. 

Before   proceeding  on    furlough  in    1807   Munro  repeated   lie  proposes 
his  unqualified  condemnation  of  the  proposal  to  introduce    a   ^•\''^5^"'^^ 

,  ,  existing 

permanent  settlement,  but  at  the  same  time  pointed  out  that  r>otwari 
as  the  full  advantages  of  the  ryotwari    system   could    not    be  '^^'^^• 
realized   unless   the  ryots  acquired  a    proprietary  interest    in 
their  holdings  a  saleable  value   should  be    given  to  the  land. 


152 


CUDDAPAH 


Revenue 
History. 


CHAP.  XI.  The  existing  rates  according  to  the  settlement  he  had  himself 
conducted  represented  about  45  per  cent,  of  the  gross  outturn, 
and  Munro  held  that  to  give  the  land  a  saleable  value  they 
should  not  exceed  one-third.  He  therefore  recommended  a 
reduction  of  25  per  cent,  on  all  rates  v^ith  an  additional  8  per 
cent,  on  lands  under  wells  and  small  tanks  on  condition  that 
the  ryots  kept  them  in  repair;  the  ryots  were  further  to  be 
given  the  proprietary  right  and  within  certain  limits  the  right 
of  relinquishment.  He  believed  that  the  initial  loss  of  revenue 
would  soon  be  counterbalanced  by  the  extension  of  cultivation 
induced  by  these  measures. 

Meanwhile  the  controversy  started  in  1804  continued  for 
four  years  until  with  the  departure  of  Munro  and  afterwards 
Lord  William  Bentinck,  the  strongest  supporters  of  the  ryot- 
wari  system,  it  was  ordered  early  in  1808  that  villages  should 
be  leased  out  to  the  village  headmen  and  chief  cultivators  for  a 
term  of  three  years  from  fasli  I2l8  upon  such  terms  as  might 
be  considered  moderate  and  equitable,  subject  to  the  condition 
that  no  reduction  in  the  rental  would  be  made  on  account  of 
adverse  seasons.  Munro  had  left  the  country  in  October  1807 
before  these  instructions  reached  the  Ceded  Districts.  His 
services  to  the  State  during  his  seven  years'  tenure  of  this 
charge  received  handsome  acknowledgments  from  the  Direc- 
tors at  home  as  well  as  from  the  local  Government  in  India. 

On  the  departure  of  Munro  the  Ceded  Districts  were 
divided  between  two  Collectors.  Mr.  W.  W-  Chaplin,  the 
Subordinate  Collector  at  Cumbum,  appears  to  have  first  taken 
charge  of  the  Cuddapah  district,  but  to  have  been  transferred 
in  the  following  year  to  Bellary,  the  other  coUectorate,  while 
Cuddapah  was  assigned  to  Mr.  G.  Gregory.  Sidhout  was  fixed 
on  as  the  headquarters  of  the  new  district  and  continued  as 
such  for  several  years.  The  triennial  lease  was  not  a  success. 
The  headmen  fearful  of  being  ousted  by  new-comers  accepted 
higher  conditions  of  rent  than  they  could  meet.  As  many 
of  them  were  indifferent  managers,  the  ryots  were  unduly 
oppressed  and  cultivation  fell  off.  The  Collector  of  Cuddapah 
spoke  strongly  against  the  system.  "  I  believe,"  he  said, 
"that  few  or  none  have  been  benefited  by  their  bargain; 
nearly  all  have  been  losers  and  some  have  been  ruined."  To 
the  Board,  however,  the  failure  appeared  to  be  attributable 
to  the  shortness  of  the  lease  and  the  excessive  rents,  and  with 
the  expiry  of  the  three  years'  term  an  attempt  was  made  to 
remedy  these  defects. 

The  result  was  the  introduction  in  fasli  1222  (1812-13)  of  a 
decennial  lease,  the  rents  being  calculated  on  the  collections 


LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION  153 

of  the  seven  preceding  years.  It  resulted  in  even  a  worse  CHAP.  XI. 
failure.  The  renters  oppressed,  mismanaged,  absconded  with  Revenue 
the  collections,  or  fell  into   arrears  ;  the   ryots  intrigued   and    History. 

combined  against  the  renters,  and  under  oppression  and  extor-         

tion  resorted  once  more  to  the  migratory  habits  from  which 
Munro  had  tried  to  wean  them.  Cultivation  decreased  and 
many  villages  reverted  to  Government.  Finally  the  results  of 
a  bad  season  in  fasli  1226  made  the  abandonment  of  the  rent- 
ing system  inevitable.  The  Directors  with  whom  Munro  had 
been  in  communication  while  at  home  had  ordered  a  return  to 
the  ryotwari  system  at  the  conclusion  of  the  lease,  and  Munro 
who  had  returned  in  1816,  when  consulted,  advised  that  these 
orders  should  be  anticipated  by  encouraging  the  remaining 
renters  to  surrender  their  leases  and  that  the  ryotwari  system 
should  be  re-established  after  carrying  out  the  reductions  of 
25  and  33  per  cent,  he  had  formerly  proposed.  Final  orders 
to  this  eifect  were  passed  by  Munro  himself  as  Governor  in 
1820,  and  the  new  settlement  was  introduced  in  1821  in 
the  Dhoor  and  Chennur  taluks  where  not  a  single  renter 
remained  solvent.  The  reductions  in  the  assessment  were 
under  Munro's  orders  to  be  immediate,  but  the  Collector  in 
some  cases  did  not  give  effect  to  them  and  in  others  they  were 
saddled  with  the  condition  that  waste  to  the  extent  of  half  the 
remission  should  be  taken  up.  This  the  Board  put  a  stop  to 
when  discovered,  but  the  unsatisfactory  way  in  which  the 
reductions  had  been  carried  out  was  not  known  till  Munro 
toured  in  the  district  in  1824,  when  the  Collector,  Mr.  Hanbury, 
was  transferred  and  full  effect  given  to  the  intentions  of 
Government  by  his  successor,  Mr.  J.  W.  Russel, 

The  assessment  thus  arrived  at  remained  in  force  for 
upwards  of  fifty  years.  The  evils  arising  from  the  triennial 
and  decennial  leases  could  not  be  immediately  eradicated,  but 
the  fact  that  the  revenue  of  the  district  reached  before  very 
long  the  figure  at  which  Munro's  early  administration  had 
left  it  shows  how  large  an  increase  in  cultivation  must  have 
followed  the  percentage  reductions  which  he  finally  effected. 
This  is  an  uneventful  period  in  the  revenue  history  of  the 
district,  being  marked  only  by  the  removal  of  a  few  glaring 
inequalities  of  assessment  and  the  reduction  of  some  excep- 
tionally high  rates,  considerable  relief  being  thus  given 
to  double  crop  lands.  Remissions  on  waste  and  on  lands 
under  ruined  irrigation  sources  gradually  became  more  liberal. 
But  the  most  important  changes  were  made  in  regard  to 
lands  irrigated  by  wells.  It  has  already  been  noticed  that 
Munro  granted  a  special  reduction  of  8  per  cent,  on  the  old 
20 


154 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XI. 

Revenue 
History. 


Early  opera- 
tions of  the 
Settlement 
Department. 


assessments  of  these  lands  in  addition  to  the  general  reduction 
of  25  per  cent.  But  in  spite  of  this  the  assessment  was  still 
found  to  be  oppressive  in  individual  cases,  and  in  1824  the 
Collector  was  empowered  to  reduce  the  assessment  on 
occupied  lands  in  exceptional  cases,  and  on  unoccupied  lands 
when  the  rates  kept  them  out  of  occupation,  and  also  to 
transfer  lands  to  dry  where  the  wells  had  fallen  into  disrepair. 
The  question  continued  to  occupy  attention  from  time  to  time 
in  subsequent  years,  and  finally  in  1868  and  1869  the  Govern- 
ment ordered  that  the  assessments  on  all  such  well  lands 
should  be  reduced  to  the  highest  dry  rates  of  the  villages  in 
which  they  lay.  The  amount  of  assessment  so  foregone 
in  the  whole  district  represented  about  a  lakh  of  rupees, 
but  the  ultimate  effect  cannot  be  considered  as  otherwise 
than  beneficial,  in  that  it  did  something  to  arrest  the  wide 
spread  neglect  that  had  left  so  many  wells  to  fall  into  disrepair 
and  ruin. 

Meanwhile  the  operations  of  the  new  Settlement  Depart- 
ment had  been  extended  to  the  Cuddapah  district,  and  demar- 
cation was  commenced  in  Jammalamadugu  taluk  in  1864. 
The  years  in  which  the  new  rates  were  respectively  introduced 
in  the   various   taluks   that   now   constitute   the   district  are 

given     in     the    margin.     The 


Taluk. 


Date, 


Cuddapah 
Jammalamadugu 
Proddatur 
Sidhout   ... 
Eadvel     ... 
Pulivendla 
Pullampet 
Rayachoti 


I- 


1873 

1877 
1878 

1879 

1S81 


Deputy  Directors  of  Settlement 
responsible  for  the  schemes 
submitted  to  Government  were 
Mr.  Cox,  whose  work  during 
his  long  sojourn  in  the  district 
is  still  spoken  of  with  appre- 
ciation by  the  people,  and 
Major  Stuart,  who  dealt  in 
one  report  with  the  three 
eastern  taluks  of  the  district.  Though  the  method  adopted 
was  uniform  throughout,  there  are  variations  in  the  resulting 
rates,  as  slightly  different  grain  values  were  assumed 
in  different  taluks  and  the  allowances  made  on  account 
of  cultivation  expenses  were  not  always  the  same.  With 
this  reservation  a  summary  of  any  one  of  these  schemes 
will  serve  to  indicate  how  the  settlement  of  the  district  was 
carried  out.  All  lands,  both  dry  and  wet,  were  classified  under 
the  two  main  series   of   '  regar '  and  '  red  ferruginous.'^    In 

'  This  takes  no  account  of  the  exceptional  series  in  which  were  placed 
"permanently  improved"  lands.  These  represented  a  very  small  area,  were 
placed  on  the  same  footing  as  other  lands  in  1893,  and  at  the  resettlement  were 
reclassified  and  brought  into  one  of  the  two  ordinary  series. 


LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION 


155 


Standard 

Values 

ranging; 

crop. 

From 

To 

Cholam 

400 

80 

Korra 

2S0 

100 

Paddy 

.       1,450 

360 

rating  dry  lands,  villages  were  divided  into  three  groups,  the  CHAP.  XI. 
grouping  being  based  mainly  on  a  consideration  of  the  vary-  Revenue 
ing  fertility  of  different  tracts  ;  in  regard  to  wet  lands  villages      History. 

were  similarly  distributed  among  two  or  three  groups,  accord-         

ing  to  the  advantages  of  irrigation  enjoyed.  Cholam  on 
regar  soils  and  cholam  and  korra  in  equal  proportions  on  red 
were  taken  as  the  standard  crops  on  dry  lands — except  in 
Rayachoti  taluk  where  the  standard  dry  crop  was  cumbu — • 
paddy  being  as  usual  the  standard  for  wet.  The  grain  values 
adopted    were,    as    has    been    said,  not    uniform  throughout 

the  district.  The  figures  in  the 
margin  ''^  show  the  number  of 
Madras  measures  assumed  in  the 
black  cotton  country  to  represent 
the  outturns  on  an  acre  of  the 
best  and  worst  lands.  The 
commutation  rates — generally  based  on  the  prices  of  the 
preceding  twenty  non-famine  years — were,  over  most  of  the 
district,  based  by  the  orders  of  Government  on  the  prices  of 
the  twenty  years  ending  with  1864.  The  resulting  values 
after  making  allowances  varying  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  for 

cartage  and  merchants'  profits 
are  shown  in  the  margin.!  A 
further  deduction  of  25  per 
cent,  was  made  for  agricultural 
risks,  as  also  allowances  for  the 
expenses  of  cultivation.  The 
net  outturn  remained,  and  half  of  this  was  taken  as  the 
Government  share.  The  resulting  rates,  rounded  off  to  the 
nearest  quarter  rupee,  ranged  in  the  various  taluks  as  shown 
below : — 


f  Cholam 
Korra 
Paddy 


Per  garce. 
RS, 

••  139 
loo 
126 


— 

Jammala- 

madugu, 

Proddatur 

and  Cuddapah. 

Pulivendla. 

Badvel,  Sidhout 
and  Pullampet. 

Rayachoti. 

From 

To 

From 

To 

From 

To 

From 

To 

Dry 

Wet 

RS.      A. 

5;     0 
12^     0 

RS.    A. 
0     4 

2      8 

RS.   A. 

4^  0 
9    0 

RS.   A. 

0      4 
2      0 

RS.   A. 

5I     0 
10       0 

RS.   A. 
0     4 

2      0 

RS.    A. 

92  0 

kS.  A. 

0      4 
2      0 

^  These  rates  apply  to  '  permanently  improved '  lands  in  first  class  villages, 
2  As  the  whole  of  Kayachoti  taluk  was  classed   in  the  red   ferruginous  series, 
the  highest  wet  rate  actually  found  therein  was  Rs.  7. 


156 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XI. 

Revenue 
History. 


The 

Resettle- 
ment. 


Mr.  Moir's 
reports. 


There  were  from  ten  to  twelve  rates  under  each  head  of 
dry  and  wet,  the  number  slightly  varying  in  different  parts 
of  the  district.  Munro's  paimash  took  account  of  some  fifty 
rates  in  all,  including  those  on  '  garden  '  lands.  With  the 
assimilation  of  garden  lands  to  wet  or  dry  as  the  case  might 
be,  and  the  elimination  of  the  highest  wet  rates  the  settlement 
effected  a  considerable  contraction  in  their  range,  which  made 
for  simplicity.  That  in  spite  of  these  measures  the  settlement 
resulted  in  an  increase  and  not  a  reduction  is  largely  attri- 
butable to  the  excess  area  found  by  the  survey.  What  the 
settlement  mainly  effected  was  for  the  administration  a 
simplification  of  the  accounts  and  for  the  ryots  a  more  equitable 
incidence  of  assessment.  Its  financial  results  represented  an 
increase  in  the  land  revenue  of  a  little  over  9  per  cent. 

The  rates  thus  introduced  were  in  force  for  a  period  of 
thirty  years  which  expired  in  the  early  years  of  this  century, 
when  the  district  came  up  for  resettlement.  The  tract  was 
dealt  with  in  four  scheme  reports,  the  first  of  which  related  to 
the  taluks  of  Cuddapah,  Proddatur  and  Jammalamadugu,  the 
second  to  Pulivendla,  the  third  to  the  taluks  of  the  eastern 
division,  and  the  fourth  to  Rayachoti  and  the  other  taluks  of 
the  old  sub-division.  The  proposals  embodied  in  the  first  three 
reports  were  formulated  by  Mr.  T.  E.  Moir,  I.C.S.,'  the  scheme 
for  the  sub-division  being  submitted  by  his  successor, 
Mr.  R.  W.  Davies,  I.C.S.  Mr.  Moir  left  the  party  shortly 
before  the  conclusion  of  operations  in  Cuddapah  taluk,  and 
the  resettlement  of  this  taluk  and  Pulivendla  was  subsequently 
carried  on  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Davies.  The  latter 
officer,  on  his  departure  at  the  end  of  1910,  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  writer  who  continued  to  be  in  charge  till  the 
resettlement  of  the  district  was  completed.  The  following 
table  shows  when  the  new  rates  were  introduced  in  the 
various  taluks,  which  are  grouped  according  to  the  four 
scheme  reports  above  mentioned  : — 


Jammalamadugu     Cuddapah.     Pulivendla.       Badvel     Pullampet.     Rayachoti. 
and  Proddatur.  and 

Sidhout. 
1908  1909  1911  1911  1912  1912. 

The  Scheme  report  relating  to  the  first  three  taluks  was 
submitted  in  September  1906.  In  reviewing  the  economic 
condition  of  this  tract  the  Settlement  officer,  while  giving  due 
weight  to  all  indications  of  material  progress,  points  out  that 
the  steady  recovery  from  the  effects  of  the  great  famine — 


^  As  Special  Settlement  officer  No.  Ill  Party. 


LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION  157 

which  had  occurred  some  three  to  five  years  subsequently  to    CHAP.  XI. 
the  original  settlement — had  received  continual  checks  owing         xhe 
to  the  frequency  of  unfavourable   seasons  in  the  latter  half  of     Resettle- 
the  settlement  period.     He  says  "  The  district  has  just  passed        ment. 
through   an   extraordinary   series  of  lean  years   which    have 
checked  progress  and  to  some  extent  crippled  the  resources 
of  the  ryots.     There  are,  further,  several  points  with  regard  to 
the  prices  which  urge  caution."     At  the  time  this  report  was 
written  it  could  not  have  been  divined  that  the  high  prices 
which  ruled  in  1905  were  not  occasioned  by  causes  of  a  local 
or  temporary  nature,  but  marked  the  commencement  of  the 
great  economic  change  which  has  intensified  ever  since  and 
persists  to  the  present  day. 

In  discussing  the  price  of  cholam,  the  standard  dry  Dry  lands. 
crop  of  the  black  cotton  taluks,  the  Special  Settlement  officer 
predicts  in  regard  to  the  future  that  "the  prices  of  ordinary 
years  will  probably  range  between  Rs.  150  and  Rs.  190  .  . 
.  This  does  not  admit  of  any  increase  on  the  score  of 
prices."  Three  years  later  the  Settlement  officer,  when 
submitting  his  scheme  for  the  resettlement  of  the  eastern 
taluks,  had  to  weigh  the  significance  of  the  continued  rise  in 
prices  in  the  normal  years  that  followed  1905.     The  figures  in 

the  margin  show  that  in 
1907-08  the  price  of  cholam 
had  reached  a  cent,  percent, 
higher  figure  than  that  held 
by  the  Settlement  officer  in 
I906  as  likely  to  prove  the 
average  price  of  ordinary 
years.  "The  seasons,"  says  the  Settlement  officer,  "are 
quite  inadequate  to  account  for  the  prices  of  the  last  three 
years  .  .  .  The  question  of  course  is  no  longer  a 
local  one,  and  as  financial  experts  disagree  as  to  the 
solution  it  lies  beyond  the  province  of  the  Settlement 
officer  .  .  .  Apart  from  vicissitudes  of  the  seasons  the 
high  prices  of  the  last  three  years  are  attributed  to  two 
main  causes,  the  rise  in  gold  prices  in  other  parts  of 
the  world  and  the  enormous  increase  in  the  rupee  coinage, 
the  latter  being  by  far  the  most  important  according  to 
the  latest  pronouncement  on  the  subject  in  the  March  ^ 
issue  of  the  Economic  Journal.  The  extent  to  which 
this  has  been  due  to  permanent  influences  is  doubtful  but  it 
is  clear  that,  depending  as  it  does  on  the  currency  policy  of 
the    Government,   it  is   subject  to     remedial    action     .     .     . 

'  1909. 


Fasli. 

Price 

of  cholam 

per  garce. 

RS. 

1314       •.. 

257 

1315       .- 

268 

1316       ... 



305 

1317 



347 

15* 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XI. 

The 
Resettle- 
ment. 


Wet  lands. 


The  "Sub- 
division." 


Dasaban- 
dham  wells. 


Where  so  many  uncertainties  exist  it  seems  to  me  better  to 
confine  attention  to  the  period  up  to  fasli  1 314  to  which  these 
unknown  factors  do  not  apply."  The  conclusion  drawn  was 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  western  taluks,  namely,  that  no 
enhancement  of  the  dry  rates  was  justified  on  the  score  of 
prices. 

In  dealing  with  the  Settlement  officer's  proposals  for  the 
resettlement  of  the  western  taluks  the  Board  had  urged  that 
an  enhancement  of  6^  per  cent,  was  at  least  justified.  This 
was,  however,  negatived  by  the  Government  "  in  view  of  the 
smallness  of  the  rise  in  prices  and  the  economic  history  of  the 
taluks."  This  concession  to  the  "  more  prosperous  western 
taluks  "  was  accorded  in  due  course  to  the  rest  of  the  district, 
and  the  dry  rates  remained  unchanged. 

Fluctuations  in  the  prices  of  paddy  being  less  marked 
than  in  those  of  cholam  over  the  same  period,  the  question  of 
enhancing  the  wet  rates  was  never  discussed.  But  the  system 
by  which,  at  the  original  settlement,  villages  had,  as  regards 
wet  lands,  been  divided  into  three — sometimes  only  two — 
groups  was  found  to  have  resulted  in  inequalities  in  the 
incidence  of  assessment,  while  the  number  of  sorts  provided 
under  each  class  of  soil  was  found  to  be  too  few  to  ensure  a 
sufficient  elasticity  in  the  rates.  For  these  among  other 
reasons  the  abolition  of  the  "  wet  grouping  "  of  villages,  the 
classification  of  sources  according  to  their  individual  capacity 
together  with  a  careful  revision  of  their  ayacuts,  the  reclassifi- 
cation of  soils  and  the  imposition  of  a  new  table  of  rates 
were,  in  regard  to  wet  lands,  the  principal  features  of  the 
resettlement  in  the  old  main  division.  The  new  wet  rates 
for  "  single  crop  "  land  range  from  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  2. 

Rayachoti  is  the  only  taluk  of  the  old  sub-division  that 
still  belongs  to  the  district.  Mr.  Davies  in  submitting  pro- 
posals for  the  resettlement  of  this  tract  laid  some  stress  on 
the  inferior  economic  condition  of  the  sub-division  in  general, 
and  Rayachoti  in  particular,  to  the  rest  of  the  district.  Dry 
rates  as  elsewhere  remained  unchanged.  In  regard  to  wet 
lands  the  grouping  of  villages  was  abolished  in  favour  of  the 
classification  of  individual  sources,  but  as  it  was  found -that 
the  existing  money  rates  were  suitable  and  assessments  by 
no  means  so  unequal  as  in  the  main  division,  the  rates  were 
retained  unaltered  and  there  was  no  general  reclassification 
of  soils. 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  dasabandham  wells  in  dealing 
with  the  irrigation  of  the  district.  In  regard  to  shamilat 
dasabandham  wells,  which,  in  the  order  of   taluks  taken  up 


LAND  REVENUE  ADMINISTRATION 


159 


for  resettlement,  were  first  found  in  Pulivendla,  the  difficulty 
in  applying  to  them  the  system  of  differential  water-rate  led 
the  Settlement  officer  to  submit  alternative  proposals  for 
their  treatment,  one  of  which  was  to  convert  them  into  private 
property  and  to  register  the  ayacuts  as  dry,  discontinuing  the 
inam  remissions.  The  Government  not  only  accepted  this 
proposal,  but  extended  the  concession  to  khandam  dasaban- 
dham  wells.  Though  the  immediate  effect  of  this  measure 
was  a  loss  of  revenue  it  was  held  to  be  justifiable  in  view  of 
the  protective  value  of  the  wells,  the  previous  high  assess- 
ments having  led  in  many  cases  to  their  being  allowed  to  fall 
into  disrepair  and  ruin. 

The  resettlement  of  the  district  resulted  in  a  net  decrease 
of  revenue  by  7  per  cent,  which  is  almost  entirely  attributable 
to  transfers  of  double  crop  to  single  crop  and  wet  to  dry,  as 
well  as  the  more  favourable  rates  now  allowed  for  composi- 
tion of  the  double  crop  charge.  Besides  the  concession 
granted  by  Government  in  the  matter  of  dasabandham  wells, 
large  areas  under  other  sources,  both  Government  and 
dasabandham,  were  found  to  be  totally  unirrigable  and  had 
to  be  registered  as  dry.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the 
taluks  of  Pulivendla  and  Sidhout,  where  it  is  a  matter  for 
surprise  that  transfers  to  dry  were  not  more  freely  effected  by 
the  Revenue  Department  during  the  period  of  the  original 
settlement.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  reduction  in  the 
demand  is  thus  largely  counterbalanced  by  a  decrease  in 
seasonal  remissions.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  equally  certain 
that  the  ryots  have  cause  to  be  grateful  to  Government  for  a 
remarkably  lenient  resettlement. 

The  Collector  of  the  district  is  now  assisted  in  the 
administration  of  the  revenue  by  a  Sub-Collector  at  Rajampet, 
and  Deputy  Collectors  at  Jammalamadugu,  Rayachoti  and 
Cuddapah.  There  is,  as  usual,  a  Tahsildar  in  each  taluk. 
There  are  also  Deputy  Tahsiklars  at  Chitvel,  Lakkireddipalle 
and  Cuddapah  town,  the  two  latter  posts  being  new  creations 
following  on  the  redistribution  of  districts  which  came 
into  effect  in  1910  and  1911.  Prior  thereto,  the  taluks  of 
Rayachoti,  Kadiri,  Madanapalle  and  Vayalpad  formed  the 
sub-division  in  charge  of  a  Sub-Collector  at  Madanapalle ; 
Jammalamadugu,  Pulivendla  and  Proddatur  constituted 
another  division  under  the  Deputy  Collector  of  Jammala- 
madugu, while  a  second  Deputy  Collector  in  charge  of  the 
eastern  taluks  was  stationed  at  Sidhout,  and  the  taluk  of 
Cuddapah  was,  as  it  still  is,  administered  by  the  Head- 
quarters  Deputy  Collector.     In    October    1910,  Kadiri    taluk 


CHAP.  XI. 

The 
Resettle- 
ment. 


Financial 
results. 


Existing 

Divisional 

Charges. 


i6o 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XI.  was  incorporated  with  Anantapur  district,  and  in  the 
lixisTiNG     following  year  Madanapalle  and  Vayalpad  went  to  make  up 

Divisional  the  new  district  of  Chittoor.  Rayachoti  then  became  the 
Charges,  headquarters  of  a  Deputy  Collector,  whose  charge  includes 
the  taluk  of  that  name  and  that  of  Pulivendla.  The  Deputy 
Collector  of  Jammalamadugu  has  jurisdiction  over  the  taluks 
of  Jammalamadugu,  Proddatur  and  the  newly  formed  taluk 
of  Kamalapuram,  and  the  taluks  of  Badvel,  Sidhout  and 
Pullampet  form  the  charge  of  a  Sub-Collector  whose  head- 
quarters are,  or  shortly  will  be,  at  Rajampet. 


SALT,  ABKARI  AND  MISCELLAXEOUS  REVENUE  r6l 

CHAPTER  XII. 
SALT,  ABKARI  and  MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE. 


Salt — Former  sources  of  supply — Earth-salt  ;  method  of  manufac- 
ture— Its  interference  with  monopoly  salt — Its  manufacture 
suppressed — Present  sources  of  supply.  Abkari — Arrack — 
Foreign  liquors — Toddy — Opium  and  hemp  drugs — The  preven- 
tive force.     Income-tax.     Stamps. 

At   the   time  when  the  Company  came  into    possession    of  CHAP.  XII. 
the  district  the  salt  consumed  in  it  was  of  two  kinds,  namely.        Salt. 

earth-salt  manufactured   from    saline    soils    by    men    of    the  

Uppara    caste  and  marine   salt    obtained    from  the    Nellore  ^o"""''' 

*^'  sources  ot 

littoral.  supply. 

The  manufacture  of  earth-salt  was  peculiar  to  the  Ceded   Eanh-salt ; 

T^-        •  1  -11  r       '  1  1  1        method  of 

Districts  and  was  earned  on  by  means  of  modas  or  salt-mounds,  manufac- 
A  heap  of  earth  was  piled  up  and  on  the  top  of  it  were  t^re. 
hollowed  out  one  or  more  circular  basins,  some  five  feet  in 
diameter  and  two  feet  deep.  From  the  bottom  of  these  basins 
channels  lined  with  chunam  ran  down  to  one  or  more  reser- 
voirs similarly  lined.  Salt-earth  was  collected  in  the  places 
where  it  effloresced  naturally  in  the  dry  months  and  taken  to 
the  model  on  pack-buffaloes.  It  was  thrown  into  the  basins 
and  then  a  quantity  of  water  was  poured  upon  it.  The  brine 
so  obtained  flowed  through  the  channels  at  the  bottom  of  the 
basins  into  the  reservoirs.  From  these  it  was  baled  with 
chatties  into  a  set  of  masonry  evaporating  pans,  carefully 
levelled  and  plastered  with  chunam,  where  it  was  left  to  be 
converted  into  salt  by  solar  evaporation.  Each  lot  of  salt- 
earth  which  was  thus  lixiviated  was  taken  from  the  basins 
and  thrown  outside  them  and  this  process  constantly  repeated 
gradually  raised  the  level  of  the  moda  and  the  basins  which 
were  perpetually  being  remade  on  the  top  of  it.  Some 
of  the  modas  gradually  grew  to  be  as  much  as  20  feet  in 
height.  When  they  became  inconveniently  high  for  the 
buffaloes  to  carry  the  salt-earth  up  to  their  summits,  they  were 
abandoned  and  others  started  elsewhere. 

The  earth-salt  made   in  this  manner  was  neither  so  good   lisinierier- 
nor  so  strong  as  marine  salt,  but  it  was  much   used   bv  the   ^^^e  with 

"  nionopolv 

poorer  classes  and  for  cattle,  and  thus  interfered  with  the  pro-  salt. 
fits  of  the  Government  salt  monopoly  which  was  established 


162 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XII 

Salt. 


Its  manu- 
facture 
suppressed. 


Present 
sources  of 
supply. 


.  in  1805.  As  early  as  1806,  therefore,  it  was  proposed  to 
prohibit  its  manufacture.  The  chief  arguments  against  any 
such  step  were  that  it  would  inflict  hardship  upon  the 
Upparas  who  made  the  salt  and  upon  the  poorer  classes  who 
consumed  it,  and  for  the  next  three-quarters  of  a  century  a 
wearisome  correspondence  dragged  on  regarding  the  course 
which  it  would  be  proper  to  pursue.^  In  1873,  Mr.  G.  Thorn- 
hill,  member  of  the  Board  of  Revenue,  visited  the  Ceded 
Districts  to  see  how  matters  stood.  He  reported  that  it  was 
not  possible  to  check  the  competition  of  the  earth-salt  with 
the  Government  marine  salt  by  imposing  an  excise  duty,  as 
the  niodas  were  numerous  and  scattered.  For  similar  reasons, 
and  also  because  all  the  Upparas  were  very  poor,  a  license- 
tax  was  out  of  the  question.  At  the  same  time  he  calculated 
that  the  loss  to  Government  due  to  the  system  was  from 
eight  to  eleven  lakhs  annually  and  seeing  that  Government 
salt  was  obtainable  in  Cuddapah  as  cheaply  as  in  other 
inland  districts  he  recommended  that  the  industry  should  be 
gradually  suppressed. 

Government  agreed  and  ordered  that  the  opening  of  new 
modas  should  be  prohibited  and  that  those  in  existence  should 
be  licensed,  with  reference  to  their  productive  capacity,  at 
rates  to  increase  by  annual  increments  until  1879,  when  the 
full  duty  leviable  on  sea-salt  should  be  imposed  on  their 
entire  produce.  These  measures,  though  they  checked  the 
manufacture,  were  not  completely  successful,  and  in  1876  the 
Madras  Salt  Commission  and  the  Board  of  Revenue  concurred 
in  recommending  that  the  manufacture  of  earth-salt  should  be 
at  once  and  entirely  suppressed.  The  Government  of  India 
agreed,  and  in  1880  orders  were  given  that  the  modas  should 
all  be  destroyed,  reasonable  compensation  being  paid  to 
their  owners.  Thirty-five  years  have  thus  elapsed  since  the 
manufacture  of  earth-salt  was  prohibited,  but  the  remains  of 
the  old  modas  are  still  to  be  seen  in  parts  of  Pulivendla  and 
Badvel  taluks  where  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  saline  soil. 
Cases  of  illicit  manufacture  used  to  occur  occasionally  but 
largely,  it  is  said,  owing  to  the  reduction  of  the  duty  on  salt 
in  1907— are  unknown  nowadays.  Saline  tracts  are,  however, 
still  periodically  examined  by  the  officers  whose  duty  it  is  to 
discover  and  prevent  such  offences. 

All  the  salt  now  consumed  in  the  district  is  sea-salt  made 
in  factories  on  the  coast  under  Government  supervision.  Salt 
from  Bombay  and  Goa  is  not  unknown  in  these  parts  but  is 

1  An  abstract  of  parts  of  it  will  be  found  in  paragraphs  271  — 2S9  of  the  report 
of  the  Madras  Salt  Commission  of  1876. 


SALT,  ABKARI  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE        l65 

said  to  compare  unfavourably  both  in  substance  and  flavour  CHAF.  XH. 
with  the  east-coast  article.    Ninety-six  per  cent,  of  the  supply        Salt. 

is   obtained  from    the   factories    in   Nellore  and  Chingleput  

districts.     Salt  is  sold  wholesale  at  the  factories  by  weight 
but  is  retailed  in  the  district  by  measure. 

Abkari    revenue  is  mainly    derived   frc»m    arrack,  foreign    Abkari. 
liquor,    toddy,    opium    and    hemp-drugs.     Particulars   of    the 
revenue  realized  under  these   heads  in  recent  years  will  be 
found  in  the  volume  of  appendices. 

The  supply  of  arrack  is  at  present  regulated  by  what  is  -Arrack, 
known  as  the  contract  distillery  system,  under  which  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  manufacture  and  supply  of  country 
spirits  throughout  the  district  is  disposed  of  by  tender,  the 
contract  being  for  a  period  of  three  years.  The  successful 
tenderers — at  present  the  Deccan  Sugar  and  Abkari  Company, 
Limited — have  the  monopoly  of  supply  of  liquor  of  their  own 
manufacture  to  the  retail  vendors  within  the  district,  the  rates 
at  which  the  supply  is  made  being  fixed  by  Government. 
The  Company  maintains  a  warehouse  at  Cuddapah,  which 
gets  its  supply  from  the  distillery  at  Samalkot  in  Godavari 
district.  Molasses  arrack  is  obtained  from  Samalkot  at  over- 
proof  strength  and  reduced  to  30^  under-proof  at  the  Cuddapah 
warehouse  before  issue  to  the  retail  vendors  in  the  vicinity 
of  Cuddapah,  who  get  their  supply  direct  from  the  warehouse, 
and  to  the  wholesale  depots  in  the  district,  of  which  there 
are  nineteen.  About  45,000  gallons  of  arrack  constitute  the 
average  annual  issue  from  the  warehouse.  The  right  of 
retailing  the  liquor  is  annually  sold  by  auction,  separately 
by  shops. 

The  foreign  liquor  trade  is,  as  elsewhere,  controlled  by  the   Foreign 
issue  of  licenses  to  wholesale  and  retail  vendors  on  payment  '>*l"'^rs. 
of  the  prescribed  fees.     There  are  only  three  foreign   liquor 
shops    in   the    district,    one   being  the    railway    refreshment 
room  at  Cuddapah. 

Since  1897  the  toddy  revenue  has  been  managed  on  the  Todav. 
tree-tax  system  under  which  a  tax  is  levied  on  every  tree 
tapped  and  the  right  to  open  shops  for  sale  is  sold  annually 
by  auction.  The  trees  tapped  are  dates  and  palmyras, 
principally  the  former.  Such  trees  are  most  numerous  in 
PuUampet  taluk  and  thereafter  commoner  in  Cuddapah, 
Proddatur  and  Pulivendla  than  other  parts  of  the  district.  Tn 
the  latter  taluk  at  Idupulapaya  there  is  a  valuable  Govern- 
ment tope  of  palmyra  trees.  Shop-keepers  apply  to  havi- 
certain  trees  marked  for  their  use  and  pay  a  tax  of  Rs.  2-4-O 
per  tree.     In  addition  to  this  a  fee  of  four  annas  is  payable  to 


164 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.XI] 

Abkari. 


Opium  and 
hemp  drugs. 


The  preven- 
tive force. 


the  tree-owner.  Where  the  trees  are  situated  on  poramboke, 
which  is  generally  the  case  in  this  district,  the  owner's  fee  is 
paid  to  Government.  The  tapping"  of  the  trees  is  mainly  done 
by  idigas,  whose  hereditary  occupation  it  is,  but  a  few  Musal- 
mans  also  find  employment  by  this  means.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  here,  as  in  the  Ceded  Districts  generally,  cocoanut  trees 
are  not  tapped.  They  are  not  largely  grown  and  the  toddy 
they  give  is  not  locally  favoured.  It  is  also  said  that  the 
toddy-drawers  of  the  district  do  not  understand  the  art  of 
climbing  and  tapping  cocoanut  trees  and  that  they  and  the 
shop-keepers  have  consequently  created  a  prejudice  against 
this  sort  of  toddy,  to  prevent  a  demand  for  it.  The  tappers 
in  this  district  are  generally  employed  by  the  shop-keepers  on 
monthly  wages,  the  collection  and  transport  of  the  liquor 
being  arranged  by  the  shop-keepers  themselves. 

An  elaborate  set  of  rules  has  been  framed  by  the  Board  of 
Revenue  with  the  object  of  regulating  the  tapping  of  trees 
and  preventing  their  death  by  violent  treatment.  A  fine  of 
two  rupees  is  generally  levied  for  every  tree  killed  by  over- 
tapping.     The  offence  is  by  no  means  common. 

For  the  manufacture  of  jaggery  sweet  toddy  is  drawn 
principally  in  PuUampet  and  Badvel  taluks.  A  few  trees  are 
also  used  for  this  purpose  in  Cuddapah  and  Sidhout.  The 
total  number  of  trees  in  the  district  that  are  tapped  for  sweet 
toddy  is  only  about  three  thousand,  so  that  the  practice  is  not 
widely  prevalent.  Toddy  is  not  distilled  for  the  manufacture 
of  arrack. 

As  in  the  case  of  liquor,  the  right  of  selling  opium  is  put 
up  to  auction  annually  by  shops.  The  licensed  vendors  of 
this  district  get  their  supply  from  the  Government  treasuries 
at  Cuddapah  and  Proddatur.  There  is  a  considerable  demand 
for  opium  at  both  these  places,  chiefly  among  Musalmans. 
The  hospital  at  Jammalamadugu  and  some  dispensaries 
hold  opiimi  licenses  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  district  sup- 
ply of  ganja  is  obtained  from  the  storehouse  at  Santara- 
vur.  Like  opium,  it  is  principally  consumed  at  Cuddapah  and 
Proddatur. 

The  preventive  force  employed  by  the  Abkari  Department 
checks  illicit  manufacture  of  salt,  arrack  and  toddy  and  illicit 
practices  regarding  opium  and  hemp-drugs.  There  is  at 
present  but  one  Inspector  of  the  department  in  the  district, 
whose  headquarters  are  at  Sidhout.  He  is  subordinate  to  the 
Assistant  Commissioner  at  Vellore.  The  entertainment  of  a 
second  Inspector,  whose  headquarters  will  be  at  Jammala- 
madugu, has  recently  been  sanctioned. 


SALT,  ABKARl   AND  MISCELLANEOUS  REVENUE         1 65 

Income-tax  is  levied  and  collected,  as  elsewhere,  according   CHAP.  XIL 
to  the  rules  framed  under  the  Income-tax  Act  of  1886.     The       income- 
number  of  assessees  under  Part  IV  bears  a  proportion  of  less         tax. 

than  one  per  thousand  of  the  population  of  the  district.     For  

the  year  IQ12-13  the  incidence  of  the  tax  per  head  of  the 
total  population  was  eight  pies  while  its  average  distribution 
among  the  assessees  amounted  to  nearly  forty-seven  rupees. 
With  the  exception  of  Cuddapah,  Proddatur  and  Rajampet 
the  district  contains  very  few  trading  centres  of  any  import- 
ance, and  the  fact  that  there  are  only  three  other  districts  in 
the  Presidency  which  realize  less  by  this  tax  than  Cuddapah 
need  occasion  no  surprise.  The  assessees  under  Part  IV  are 
mostly  money-lenders,  dealers  in  food-grains  and  piece-goods 
merchants. 

Judicial  and  non-judicial  stamps  are  sold  in  the  district  in  Stamps. 
the  usual  manner,  local  stamp-vendors  obtaining  their  stock 
at  a  discount  from  Government  treasuries.  The  population 
being  below  that  of  any  other  district  in  the  Presidency 
except  the  Nilgiris,  and  the  condition  of  the  people  far  from 
affluent,  it  follows  that  the  amount  derived  from  the  sale  of 
stamps  is  proportionately  small.  The  love  of  litigation  may 
not  be  less  than  elsewhere  but  the  capacity  for  its  indulgence 
is  limited,  and  the  sale  of  judicial  stamps  in  the  same 
measure  restricted.  The  demand  for  non-judicial  stamps  is 
also  not  large  where  big  transactions  are  rare  and  land  is 
mostly  owned  by  small  ryots.  Statistics  show  that  there  are 
but  three  other  districts  in  the  Presidency  wherein  less 
revenue  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  stamps  than  in  Cuddapah. 


166 


CUDDAPAti 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 


CHAP. 
XIII. 

Civil 
Justice. 

Village 
munsifs. 


District 
munsifs. 


Civil  Justice — Village  munsifs — District  munsifs — The  District 
Court — Litigation  rare — Registration,  Criminal  Justice — 
Crime— Police — Jails — Some  sensational  crimes. 

The  Civil  Courts  of  the  district  are,  as  elsewhere,  of  three 
grades,  namely,  those  of  the  village  munsifs,  the  district 
munsifs  and  the  District  Judge.  They  have  the  same  general 
pow^er  and  jurisdiction  as  in  other  parts  of  the  Presidency. 

In  Cuddapah,  as  in  the  Ceded  Districts  generally,  the 
number  of  suits  filed  in  the  courts  of  village  munsifs  falls 
considerably  below  the  district  average  for  the  Presidency 
as  a  whole.  In  an  ordinary  year  they  amount  in  the  aggre- 
gate to  about  twelve  hundred.  The  majority  are  valued 
between  Rs.  10  and  Rs.  20.  In  the  year  1912  only  three  suits 
were  instituted  of  a  value  exceeding  Rs.  20.  There  are  no 
village  bench  courts  in  the  district.  The  figures  for  the  year 
1913  show  that  in  Pullampet  and  Badvel  taluks  more  than 
twice  as  much  civil  work  is  disposed  of  by  village  munsifs 
than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  district. 

Before  April  I,  1911,  there  were  four  district  munsifs 
in  the  district,  namely,  at  Nandalur,  Proddatur,  Madana- 
palle   and    Cuddapah,    and    the     limits   of    the    jurisdiction 

exercised  by  each  are  shown  in 
the  margin-  With  the  recon- 
stitution  of  the  district  in  1911 
which  involved  the  transfer  of 
Madanapalle  and  Vayalpad 
taluks  to  Chittoor  and  Kadiri 
taluk  to  Anantapur  district  as 
also  the  creation  of  a  new 
taluk,  Kamalapuram,  in  Cudda- 
pah district  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  three  courts  that  remained 
underwent  in  every  case  some 
change.  Kamalapuram  taluk 
was  brought  within  the  limits  of  the  Proddatur  Court,  and  the 


Court. 


Nandalur 


Proddatur 


Madanapalle 


Cuddapah 


Taluks. 
["Pullampet. 
•  J  Sidhout. 
I^Badvel. 

{Proddatur. 
Jammalamadugu. 
f  Madanaplle. 
!  Vayalpad. 
j  Kadiri. 

l^South  Rayachoti. 
f  Cuddapah. 
J  Pulivendla. 
l^North  Rayachoti. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE  I67 

portion  of  Rayachoti  taluk   which  formerly  belonged  to  the       CHAP, 
jurisdiction  of  the  District  Munsif  of  Cuddapah  was  further        XIII. 
split  into  two  divisions  of  twenty-five  villages    each,   one  of        Civil 
which  was  added  to  the  jurisdiction  of  Nandalur  while  the      Justice. 
other  remained  to  Cuddapah.     The  civil  district  of  Cuddapah 
was  at  the  same  time  extended  by  the  inclusion  in  it  of  the 
Gooty   munsifi,    which    comprises   the    Gooty    and    Tadpatri 
taluks  of    Anantapur    district   and   Adoni    tahik    of  Bellary 
district.     Consequently  the  number  of  district  munsits'  courts 
subordinate  to  the  District  Court  of  Cuddapah    remained  the 
same  as  before. 

The  following  places  in  the  district  deserve  mention  as 
having,  at  some  time  or  other,  been  the  headcjuarters  of  civil 
courts  : — 

Rayachdti  ...    1816-66     '      Tangatiir...  ...    1816-72 

Nandyalampet    ...   iSry-yo  Duvvur    ...abolished  in  1S60 

Badvel    ...  ...    1S64-84  Venipalle...  ...   1835-66 

It  is  thus  apparent  that  the  District  Court  of  Cuddapah  The  Dis-Hci 
exercises  jurisdiction  over  an  extensive  area,  the  length  of  °"'^^' 
which  from  south-east  to  north-west  corresponds  roughly  to  the 
section  of  the  railway  line  between  the  junctions  of  Renigunta 
and  Raichur.  It  is  however  by  no  means  a  wealthy  tract,  and 
the  large  majority  of  its  inhabitants,  being  educationally 
backward,  are  unversed  in  the  tortuous  byways  of  litigation 
whose  uncertain  issues  they  are  inclined  to  avoid. 

Consequently  the  business  annually  brought  before  the  Liiii^aiinn 
civil  courts  of  the  district  is  but  moderate  in  quantity  and  '^''^• 
demands  no  special  steps  to  aid  them  in  its  disposal.  It  has 
already  been  seen  that  the  work  of  the  village  munsifs  is  light. 
The  average  number  of  ordinary  suits  annually  instituted  in 
the  District  Munsifs'  Courts  of  Cuddapah  and  Proddatur  from 
1901  to  191 1  falls  in  each  case  below  one  thousand,  while  the 
corresponding  figure  for  the  Nandalur  Court  is  much  lower 
Revenue  suits  are  very  rare,  about  twenty  a  year  being  insti- 
tuted in  the  Court  of  the  Divisional  Officer  of  Sidhout,  and 
none  elsewhere.  Finally,  the  original  work  in  the  District 
Court  is  by  no  means  heavy.  There  is  no  Sub-Judge  at 
Cuddapah.  Statistics  relating  to  the  business  of  the  civil 
courts  of  the  district  will  be  found  in  the  separate  volume  of 
appendices. 

The  registration  of  assurances  is    conducted  on    the    usual   Registration. 
lines.     The  revenue  district  of  Kurnool   is,    however,    included 
in  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Registrar  of  Cuddapah.     The  follow- 
ing is  a  brief  account  of  the  administrative  changes  that  have 


1 68 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP. 
XIII. 

Civil 
Justice. 


Criminal 
Justice. 


Badvel. 
Chitvel. 

Jammalamadugii. 
Proddatur. 


Pulivendla. 
Pullampei. 
Rayacholi. 
Sidhoul. 


taken  place  from  time  to  time.  At  the  beginning  of  1865  two 
sub-registry  offices  were  opened  in  the  taluk  of  Cuddapah 
and  designated  the  offices  of  the  Sub-Registrars  of  Cuddapah 
and  Kamalapuram.  In  1878  the  appointment  of  a  Registrar 
was  sanctioned  and  the  office  of  the  Sub-Registrar  of  Cudda- 
pah was  amalgamated  with  that  of  the  Registrar.  In  the 
following  year  the  office  of  the  Sub-Registrar  of  Kamalapuram 
was  abolished  and  the  area  of  this  sub-district  was  transferred 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Registrar  of  Cuddapah.  From 
January  I,  1908,  a  joint  sub-registry  office  was  opened  at 
Cuddapah  as  a  tentative  measure  and  was  ordered  to  be 
retained  permanently  from  1910 ;  but  in  the  following  year  it 
was  amalgamated  with  that  of  the  Registrar  of  Cuddapah. 
Finally,  with  effect  from  January  I,  1913,  the  registration 
district  of  Kurnool  was  amalgamated  with  Cuddapah,  and  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  registration  district  of  Cuddapah  became 

conterminous  with  the  limits 
of  the  two  revenue  districts 
of  Cuddapah  and  Kurnool. 
There  are  at  present  eight 
Sub-Registrars'  offices  in  the 
district  at  the  stations  noted  in  the  margin. 

The  constitution  of  the  criminal  courts  of  the  district 
presents  no  peculiarity.  Lowest  in  the  scale  are  the  courts  of 
the  village  magistrates,  who  try  very  few  cases.  The  bulk 
of  the  criminal  work  of  the  district  falls,  as  elsewhere,  to  the 
courts  of  the  stationary  sub-magistrates  exercising  third  or 
second  class  powers  at  Cuddapah,  Proddatur,  Jammala- 
madugu,  Pulivendla,  Rayachoti  and  Rajampet.  In  the  other 
three  taluks,  namely,  Kamalapuram,  Sidhout  and  Badvel  there 
are  sheristadar-magistrates,  often  of  the  third  class,  the  limits 
of  whose  jurisdiction  within  their  respective  taluks  is  deter- 
mined by  the  District  Magistrate.  Where  there  are  sherista- 
dar-magistrates Tahsildars  also  actively  exercise  magisterial 
powers  which  is  not  the  case  where  there  are  stationary  sub- 
magistrates.  In  addition  to  these  the  Deputy  Tahsildars  of 
Cuddapah  town,  Chitvel  and  Lakkireddipalle  are  sub-magis- 
trates, the  area  of  their  jurisdiction  being  conterminous  with 
that  of  their  revenue  charges.  The  Deputy  Tahsildar  and  Sub- 
Magistrate  of  Cuddapah  town  is  also  the  President  of  the  only 
bench  court  in  the  district,  which  exercises  third-class  powers 
and  deals  chiefly  with  cases  under  the  Towns  Nuisances 
Act  and  the  District  Municipalities  Act.  The  District  Magis- 
trate and  Divisional  Officers  are  invested  with  full  magis- 
terial powers  as  elsewhere.     The   jurisdiction  of  the  Sessions 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE 


169 


Court  was  in  1911  extended  to  include  the  Gooty  and  Tadpatri 
taluks  of  Anantapur  district,  which  formerly  fell  within  that 
of  the  Sessions  Court  of  Bellary.  Statistics  regarding  the 
work  of  the  criminal  courts  will  be  found  in  the  separate 
volume  of  appendices. 

In  proportion  to  its  population  the  number  of  grave  crimes 
committed  in  Cuddapah  district  is  something  less  than  in 
Kurnool  but  exceeds  the  corresponding  figure  for  the  other 
two  of  the  Ceded  Districts.  F'ollowing  the  redistribution  of 
districts  in  1911  whereby  the  area  of  Cuddapah  was  reduced 
by  about  one-third,  it  is  worthy  of  note  that,  while  crimes  of 
house-breaking  and  theft,  including  cattle  theft,  are  much 
fewer  the  decrease  is  not  very  appreciable  in  respect  of  mur- 
ders, dacoities  and  robberies.  It  appears  to  be  undeniable 
that  crimes  of  violence  have  always  been  commoner  in  what 
was  the  old  main  division  than  in  the  rest  of  the  district. 

Statistics  show  that  crime  is  more  rife  in  the  hot  weather 
than  at  other  seasons.  The  causes  of  this  are  not  far  to  seek. 
The  harvest  has  then  been  gathered  in  and  agricultural 
operations  are  at  a  standstill.  Lacking  a  legitimate  occupa- 
tion bad  characters  are  no  longer  diverted  from  their  evil  pro- 
pensities, while  houses  are  more  easily  entered  for  felonious 
purposes  at  a  time  when  their  inmates  are  compelled  by  the 
intolerable  heat  to  sleep  outside  and  thus  relax  due  vigilance 
over  their  property.  The  great  majority  of  offences  against 
property  are  committed  by  professional  criminals  of  whom 
there  are  large  numbers  in  Cuddapah  and  the  adjoining  dis- 
tricts. Different  tribes  are  conspicuous  in  different  parts  of 
the  district.  In  Proddatur  taluk  the  principal  habitual 
offenders  are  the  Donga  Woddars,  mainly  located  at  Kottala, 
Vanipenta  and  Duvvur  ;  in  the  south  of  Pulivendla  taluk  the 
Donga  Dasaris  of  Ammayagaripalle  have  an  unsavoury 
reputation;  in  Cuddapah  taluk  the  Sugalis  of  Maddimadugu 
are  addicted  to  cattle-lifting.  Of  criminal  gangs  in  adjoining 
districts  the  worst  are  probably  the  Korachas  of  Vayalpad 
taluk  in  Chittoor  district  who  make  periodical  inroads  into 
Cuddapah  district  for  the  purpose  of  committing  crime. 
These  and  the  Donga  Woddars  have  been  declared  criminal 
tribes  under  the  Act  of  1911. 

No  account  of  crime  in  Cuddapah  district  would  be  com- 
plete without  some  reference  to  the  practice,  unfortunately 
widespread,  of  employing  hired  assassins  for  the  commission 
of  murder.  The  gang  whose  misdirected  energies  are  devoted 
to  this  nefarious  business  numbers  about  thirty  persons,  of 
various  castes.  The  leaders  are  Kapus  and  the  rest  mainly 
23 


CHAP. 
XIII. 

Criminal 
Justice. 

Crime. 


1/0 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  talaiyaris.  The  gang  has  quite  recently  been  notified  under 
XIII.         the  Criminal  Tribes  Act  of  1911.     Its  members  appear  to  have 

Criminal  launched  into  their  career  of  crime  about  twelve  years  ago, 
Justice.     \^^^  only  came  into  prominent  notice  after  the  commission  of 

a  very  atrocious  murder  in  1909.     They  operate  chiefly  in  the 

taluks  of  Jammalamadugu,  Proddatur  and  Pulivendla,  which 
constitute  the  black  cotton  tract  of  this  district.  The  bitter 
factions  among  the  Kapus  of  this  region,  already  alluded  to, 
are  pursued  with  such  unrelenting  animosity  that  the  forcible 
and  final  removal  of  one  of  the  leaders  often  becomes  the 
supreme  object  of  existence  to  the  other  party,  who  are  only 
restrained  from  its  accomplishment  by  the  certainty  that  the 
commission  of  any  such  crime  would  entail  suspicion  on 
themselves.  The  remedy  for  this  difficulty  is  found  in  the 
professional  murderer,  for  whose  services  there  has  been  an 
ever-increasing  demand  proportionate  to  the  immunity  of  his 
employers.  The  atrocious  murder  referred  to  above  was  com- 
mitted as  follows.  On  the  evening  of  September  8,  1909,  one 
Gudetti  Rami  Reddi  of  Kottapeta,  while  returning  to  his 
village  in  a  cart  from  Proddatur  where  he  had  gone  in  the 
morning  to  register  a  document  was  waylaid  and  murdered, 
his  head  being  cut  off  and  the  body  thrown  on  the  road  about 
a  mile  or  so  outside  Proddatur.  The  head  was  never  found. 
In  this  case  the  police  investigation  disclosed  that  the  chief 
of  the  gang  of  professional  assassins  had,  in  consideration  of 
a  sum  of  a  thousand  rupees  which  he  received  from  two  of  the 
deceased's  enemies,  employed  several  of  his  subordinates  to 
commit  the  murder.  Long  before  his  murder  the  deceased 
had  information  that  the  leader  of  the  gang  had  been  hired 
by  his  enemies  to  murder  him,  and  the  assassins,  knowing 
this,  took  no  action  for  about  a  year  so  as  to  allay  all  sus- 
picion and  then  committed  the  murder.  This  case  being 
typical  of  the  methods  employed,  it  is  unnecessary  to  recount 
others,  of  which  some  dozen  are  on  record,  all  of  which  bear 
evidence  of  the  handiwork  of  these  hired  assassins- 

Police.  Police  administration  in  the  district  is  controlled  by  the 

District  Superintendent.  Under  him  is  an  Assistant  Superin- 
tendent at  Jammalamadugu,  whose  charge  is  conterminous 
with  the  revenue  division  administered  from  the  same  head- 
quarters. A  personal  assistant  is  also  occasionally  given  to 
the  Superintendent.  The  force  is  organized  on  the  usual 
lines.  Some  three  hundred  and  fifty  talaiyaris  are  in  addition 
posted  along  the  high  roads  and  in  jungly  places  which 
offer  facilities  for  the  commission  of  robbery  and  dacoity. 
Wherever  possible  land   is   assigned  to   these   talaiyaris   in 


ADMINISTRATION   OF  JUSTICE  Ij^l 

the  neighbourhood  of  their  several  tdndhs,  and  a  recent  order       CHAP, 
prescribes  that  as  much   as  an  acre   of   wet   land   and  two         XIII. 
acres  of  dry  should  be  given  in  each  case,  but  it  is  seldom  that    Criminai; 
so  large  an  extent  is  available.  Justice, 

It  is  said  that  investigation  is  rendered  unduly  difficult  in 
Cuddapah  owing  to  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  people,  which 
is  not  infrequently  encouraged  by  the  village  magistrates,  es- 
pecially in  the  lawless  black  cotton  taluks.  Numerous  cases 
of  violent  crime  in  this  region  are  also  rendered  incapable 
of  conviction  owing  to  the  universal  spirit  of  faction  by  which 
nearly  all  evidence  is  tainted. 

There  is  no  district  jail  at  Cuddapah.     Persons  sentenced  jails. 
to  terms  of  imprisonment  exceeding  one  month  are  incarce- 
rated in  the  central  jail  at  Vellore.     There   is   a  sub-jail   at 
each  of  the  taluk  headquarters. 

The  most  remarkable  crime  occurring  in  the  district  subse-  Some  sen- 
quent  to  its  reduction  to  order  by  Munro  at  the  beginning  of  **f'°°*' 
the  last  century  was  the  murder  of  Mr.  Macdonald,  Additional 
Sub-Collector,  at  Cuddapah,  in  1832.  This  crime,  quite  devoid 
of  any  political  significance,  was  the  outcome  of  a  riot  engen- 
dered by  the  fanaticism  of  a  section  of  Musalmans.  Early 
in  the  morning  of  June  15,  it  was  said  that  a  small  pig  had 
been  killed  and  thrown  bleeding  into  the  Jumma  Masjid.  It 
turned  out  afterwards  that  this  pig  was  merely  a  bandicoot 
and  had  been  purposely  placed  there  by  a  Musalman  aided 
by  two  Hindus.  But  the  populace  speedily  became  excited 
and  gave  no  thought  to  the  possible  origin  of  the  incident  or 
the  perpetrator  of  the  supposed  offence.  Meeting  in  the 
market  place  and  the  principal  bazaars  of  the  town  the 
Pathans  gathered  in  large  numbers  and  fanned  the  passions 
of  one  and  all.  By  10  o'clock  the  crowd  had  assumed  alarming 
proportions  and  exhibited  so  uncompromising  an  attitude  that 
Mr.  Macdonald  sent  a  message  to  the  Collector  who  resided 
at  some  distance  from  the  town,  reporting  that  he  would 
endeavour  to  quiet  the  mob,  but,  if  necessary,  would  send  for  the 
military  from  the  cantonment.  Mr.  Macdonald  then  got  into 
his  palanquin  and  went  to  the  cutcherry  where  he  found  the 
native  subordinates  assembled  and  in  a  great  state  of  alarm. 
An  order  was  at  once  sent  for  a  detachment,  but  Macdonald 
was  not  destined  to  see  its  arrival.  A  letter  was  brought  to 
him  from  a  missionary,  Mr.  Howel,  who  lived  in  the  middle 
of  the  town  and  who  said  that  he  feared  an  instant  attack 
upon  his  house.  Macdonald,  in  spite  of  the  protestation  of 
the  cutcherry  officials,  at  once  determined  to  do  his  best  to 
help  the  missionary.     He  went  into  the  bazaar  accompanied 


172 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  only  by  a  few  peons.  A  naick  and  some  of  the  treasury 
XIII.  guard  sepoys  followed  him,  but  it  is  probable  that  their  pre- 
Criminal  sence  only  served  still  more  to  excite  the  crowd.  Macdonald 
Justice,  y^^^^  scarcely  reached  the  bazaar  before  he  was  attacked  and 
cut  down.  His  revenue  peons  ran  away,  but  the  guard  tried 
to  defend  him  and  shared  his  fate.  The  last  blow  is  said  to 
have  been  given  by  a  Pathan  butcher ;  but  after  this  had  been 
dealt,  the  mob  was  taken  aback.  It  dissolved  as  rapidly  as  it 
had  gathered,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  streets  were  deserted. 
Five  of  the  ring-leaders  of  this  riot  were  publicly  hanged  near 
the  present  town  police  station.  Macdonald  was  only  twenty- 
four  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his  death,  the  tragedy  of 
which  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  his  young  wife  only 
survived  him  twenty-one  days,  dying,  it  is  said,  of  a  broken 
heart.^ 

The  episode  of  Narasimha  Reddi's  uprising  in  1846  has 
been  briefly  referred  to  elsewhere."  Legends  of  the  most 
fearful  atrocities  have  grown  up  round  his  name  and  that  of 
two  others,  Gaddam  Baligadu  and  Thiti  Mallugadu.  Of  these 
two  latter  nothing  whatever  seems  to  be  on  record.  The 
apocryphal  crimes  of  all  three  figure  in  the  songs  and  stories 
recited  by  a  wandering  class  of  beggars  who  are  known  as 
Thandava  Patagandlu. 

Two  crimes  of  later  years,  a  murder  and  a  dacoity,  though 
not  of  very  recent  occurrence,  are  still  well  remembered,  pro- 
bably from  having  occurred  in  Cuddapah  town.  In  1885  on 
Telugu  New  Year's  day  about  9  o'clock  at  night  a  Komati 
widow  by  name  T.  Subbamma,  who  possessed  much  pro- 
perty secured  in  an  iron  safe  in  her  house,  was  killed  by  being 
suffocated.  She  lived  by  herself  in  a  house  in  the  middle  of 
the  chief  bazaar  street  of  Cuddapah  town.  On  going  outside 
the  house  previous  to  retiring  for  the  night,  some  thieves  who 
were  hidden  in  the  backyard  seized  her,  carried  her  inside, 
stuffed  a  cloth  into  her  mouth  to  prevent  her  crying  out,  and 

^  There  is  a  tomb  to  the  memory  of  Macdonald  and  his  wife  in  the  cemetery 
near  the  Sidhout  road.  An  inscription  records  that  it  was  erected  by  the  civil 
officers  of  the  station  "  as  a  tribute  of  affection  and  esteem  to  the  joint  memory  of 
Charles  Edward  Macdonald  Esquire  of  the  Madras  Civil  Service,  aged  24  years, 
a  civilian  of  the  fairest  promise  who,  while  attempting  in  the  fearless  and  con- 
scientious discharge  of  his  duty  to  appease  by  prompt  and  persuasive  measures  the 
fury  of  a  fanatic  rabble  of  Moormen  assembled  on  the  15th  June  1832  in  the  town 
of  Cuddapah,  was,  though  completely  unarmed,  attacked,  deserted  by  all  his 
peons  and  barbarously  murdered,  and  of  Agnes  his  wife,  who  only  survived  him 
21  days,  having  died  on  the  7th  July  1832,  broken-hearted,  in  the  20th  year  of 
her  age." 

*  Chapter  II,  end. 


Administration  of  justice  173 

tried  to  find  out  where  the  key  of  the  iron  safe  was.     This  key       CHAP, 
could  not  be  found,  and  the  thieves  were  unable  to  open  the        XIII. 
safe,  and  so  failed  to  obtain  the  Rs.  30,000  worth  of  property     Criminal 
for  which   they  had  come.     The  woman,  however,  was  killed     Justice. 
by  suffocation,  and  the   robbers  took  all  the  jewels  she  had 
on  her  body  valued  at  Rs.  280.     This  case  was  most  patiently 
worked   out   and   detected    by    the   Police.     At   first   a   bad 
character  of  Cuddapah   town,    tempted    by   the   reward   of 
Rs.  500  offered  by  the  District  Magistrate  for  the  detection 
of  the  case,  came  forward  and  voluntarily,  but  falsely,  con- 
fessed that  he  and  five  others  had  committed  the  crime.     His 
confession,  a  most  deliberate  one,  led  to  the  arrest  of  himself 
and   of  the   five   persons   whom   he    incriminated.     Luckily, 
however,  the  Police  hit  upon  the  right  clue  in  a  village  near 
Muddanur  of  Jammalamadugu   taluk,   as    a    consequence  of 
which  five  persons  were  arrested,  one  was  made  an  approver, 
two  were  convicted  and  sentenced  to  transportation  for  life, 
and  the  two  others  were  released.     About  Rs.  50  worth  of  the 
property  lost  was  recovered. 

The  dacoity  referred  to  took  place  in  1889.  A  well- 
organized  gang  of  twenty  or  thirty  dacoits  with  torches  and 
weapons  suddenly  appeared  at  the  outskirts  of  Cuddapah  town 
and  attacked  the  house  of  one  Makam  Chenchayya.  Some  of 
the  party  armed  with  stones  and  slings  prevented  any  assist- 
ance from  reaching  the  unfortunate  victim,  while  the  rest 
broke  into  his  house  and  carried  off  property  valued  at  more 
than  Rs.  5,500.  They  inflicted  brutal  wounds  on  Makam 
Chenchayya,  from  which  he  subsequently  died,  and  ran  off 
leaving  no  clue  whatever  to  their  identity.  The  whole  incident 
was  reported  to  have  occurred  in  less  than  half  an  hour. 


174  GUDDAPAH 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT. 


The  Local  Boards — Their  constitution — The  unions — Receipts  of 
the  boards — Their  expenditure.     Municipal  Government. 

CHAP. XIV.   Except   in   Cuddapah,   the   only   municipality    the    district 

The  Local  contains,  local  self-government  is  in  the  hands  of  the  district 

Boards.      board  and   the   four  Taluk   Boards   of   Cuddapah,  Jammala- 

madugu,  Rayachoti  and  Sidhout,  the  control  of  the  district 

board  over  the  taluk  boards  being  the  same  as  elsewhere. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  taluk  boards  is  in  each  case  conter- 
minous with  that  of  the  revenue  divisional  charge  of  the  same 
name.  The  taluk  board  of  Jammalamadugu  exercises. control 
over  the  taluks  of  Jammalamadugu,  Proddatur  and  Kamala- 
puram,  that  of  Rayachoti  is  concerned  with  the  two  taluks  of 
Rayachoti  and  Pulivendla,  the  Sidhout  Board  has  the  three 
eastern  taluks  to  manage,  while  that  of  Cuddapah  is  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  taluk  of  that  name. 
Their  Excluding    the    ex-officio   President,   who   is   the    District 

constitution.  (-Q^^g^^Qj.^  ^he  district  board  consists  of  thirty-two  members, 
half  of  whom  are  nominated  and  half  elected,  the  election 
being  by  the  taluk  boards.  Prior  to  July  1909  all  members 
were  nominated.  The  taluk  boards  are  now  similarly 
constituted,  half  the  members  being  elected.  As  in  other 
districts  the  revenue  divisional  officer  is  ex-officio  president  of 
the  taluk  board  in  his  division.  While  the  vice-president  of 
the  district  board  is  nominated,  a  taluk  board  has  the  right  of 
electing  its  vice-president,  if  it  needs  one.  At  present  there 
are  vice-presidents  in  only  two  of  the  taluk  boards,  namely, 
Cuddapah  and  Jammalamadugu. 
The  unions.  The  larger  towns   have  been  constituted  unions,  of  which 

there  are  fourteen  in  the  district.  They  have  the  usual  powers 
of  raising  taxation  within  their  respective  limits,  the  amounts 
thus  realized  being  expended  on  works  of  public  utility  such 
as  sanitation  and  the  improvement  of  communications.  There 
are  two  unions,  Patha  Cuddapah  and  Chennur,  controlled 
by  the  Cuddapah  Taluk  Board,  and  six,  namely,  Sidhout, 
Badvel,  Porumamilla,   Chitvel,   Nandalur   and  Rajampet  by 


LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT  1/5 

that  of  Sidhout.  Rayachoti,  Pulivendla  and  Vempalle  are  the  CHAP. XIV. 
unions  attached  to  the  Rayachoti  Takik  Board,  and  there  are  xhe  Local 
also  three,  namely   Proddatur,  Jammalamadugu  and  Kamala-      Boards. 

puram  under   the  Jammalamadugu   board.      The   income   of         

these  bodies  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  house-tax,  which  is 
levied  at  the  maximum  permissible  rates  in  eight  unions,  at 
two-thirds  thereof  in  four,  and  at  half  the  maximum  rates  in 
two.  The  average  incidence  of  the  tax  amounts  to  twelve 
annas  per  house  taxed,  the  rate  being  lowest  in  Chitvel  and 
highest  in  Rayachoti.  The  receipts  in  each  union  average 
about  Rs.  2,800  annually,  of  which  nearly  one-half  is  spent  on 
sanitation. 

The  incidence  of  local  fund  taxation  throughout  the  Receipts  of 
district  amounts  to  three  annas  and  one  pie  per  head  of  the  ^^^  boards, 
population.  As  elsewhere,  the  chief  item  among  the  receipts 
is  the  land-cess,  which  is  levied  at  the  rate  of  one  anna  in 
every  rupee  of  the  land  assessment  and  is  collected  in  the 
ordinary  manner.  Next  follows  the  income  derived  from  the 
sale  of  the  right  to  collect  fees  at  the  various  weekly  markets. 
There  are  fourteen  of  these  in  the  district,  of  which  those  at 
Rajampet  and  Pulivendla  are  probably  the  most  important. 

The  income  derived  from  tolls  and  ferries  constitutes 
another  important  source  of  revenue  to  the  boards.  The  right 
to  collect  fees  at  markets  is  sold  annually  by  the  taluk  boards, 
and  the  right  to  collect  tolls  by  the  district  board.  There  are 
seventeen  toll-gates  and  five  ferries  in  the  district.  Tolls  are 
levied  at  half  the  maximum  rates  allowed  by  law. 

The  income^  thus  realized  is   principally  devoted  to   the  Their 
improvement  of  communications  and  to  the  upkeep  of  medical  expenditure. 
and    educational    institutions.       Particulars  ~  of  these    have 
already  been  given. 

Of  the   early  history  of   the  Cuddapah   Municipality   but   :\itxicip\L 
little  information  is  available  owing  to  the  destruction  of  its     Govern- 
records  by  fire  in  the  year  1885.     The  town  was  constituted  a        ment. 
municipality     in    1866,   the   councillors   being    appointed   by 
nomination  until  the  introduction  of  the  Municipal  Act  of  1885, 
from  which  date  the  council  has  consisted  of  sixteen  members, 
twelve  of  whom  are  elected  by  the  rate-payers.     The  chairman 
of  the  municipality  is  elected,  and  holds  office  for  three  or 
two  years  according  as  he  is  or  is  not  a  member  of  the  council. 
In  point  of  population  Cuddapah  ranks  but  forty-ninth  among 
the  sixty-one  municipalities  of  the  Presidency.     According  to 

^  For  statistics  of  local  funds,  receipts  and  expenditure,  see  Appeniiix, 
Vol.  IL 

*See  Chapters  VII,  IX  and  X. 


1/6 


CUDDAPAH 


Govern- 
ment. 


CHAP. XIV.  the  census  of  IQII  its  inhabitants  number  17,807  which  is  less 
MuNciPAL  than  five  hundred  in  excess  of  the  figure  recorded  in  1891  and 
only  exceeds  the  population  of  1871  by  about  fifteen  hundred. 
Excluding  the  variable  item  of  grants  and  contributions 
from  Government,  the  annual  revenue  realized  by  the  munici- 
pality amounts  on  the  average  to  about  fifty  thousand  rupees. 
From  the  accounts  ^  of  its  receipts  and  expenditure  in  recent 
years  the  annual  income  of  the  municipality  seems  to  fall 
short  of  its  requirements  by  about  Rs.  4,000,  and  when  excep- 
tional expenditure  is  to  be  met,  owing,  for  example,  to  the 
outbreak  of  an  epidemic  of  plague  or  cholera,  a  much  larger 
subsidy  is  needed. 

The  town  is  provided  with  excellent  water-works,  which 
were  completed  in  1890  at  a  total  cost  of  rather  more  than  one 
lakh  and  six  thousand  rupees.  The  wells  of  the  town  seem  to 
be  a  fruitful  source  of  disease,  and  the  introduction  of  pipe 
water  had  a  very  beneficent  effect  on  the  general  health.  In 
1902  restrictions  were  placed  on  the  cultivation  of  paddy 
within  municipal  limits  with  the  result  that  malaria  was 
rendered  less  prevalent.  In  1912  a  medical  officer  specially 
deputed  to  enquire  into  the  best  means  of  combating  malaria 
visited  the  municipality,  and  the  closing  of  all  wells  was  a 
feature  of  the  proposals  made  by  him  for  still  further 
improving  the  water-supply.  The  public  health  is  also  being 
consulted  in  the  question  of  providing  proper  subsoil  drainage, 
which  has  recently  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Public  Works 
Department.  The  hospital  at  Cuddapah,  which  was  built  in 
1872,  is  under  the  control  of  the  municipality,  but  a  sum  of 
Rs.  3,000  is  annually  contributed  from  local  funds  towards 
its  upkeep. 

On  the  whole  the  town  seems  to  be  in  a  flourishing  condi- 
tion. It  is  said  that  the  population  has  recently  begun  to 
show  a  marked  upward  tendency,  and  new  buildings  are  rising 
rapidly.  A  town  survey  of  the  municipality  has  never  been 
made,  and  is  stated  to  be  greatly  needed.  The  medical  and 
educational  institutions  in  charge  of  the  municipality  have 
already  been  referred  to.^ 

J  See  Appendix,  Vol.  II.  ^  See  Chapters  IX  and  X. 


GAZETTEER  1 77 

CHAPTER  XV 
GAZETTEER 


CuDDAPAH  Taluk — Cuddapah  — Chennur  —  Vallur  —  Pushpagiri 

Pendlimarri — Chinnadasaripalle  —  Chintakommadinne—  Khaji- 

petasunkesula  —  Nandimandalam.     Jammala.madugu  Taluk 

Jammalamadugu  —  Peddamudiyam  —  Kodur   —  Gandikota 

Gandlur  —  Tallaproddatur  —  Yetur — Muddanur.  Proddatur 
Taluk — Proddatur — Duvvur — Vanipenta — Kamanur  —  Ranies- 
waram  —  Korrapad  —  Settivaripalle  —  Mudireddipalle — Maidu- 
kuru  and  Nandyalampet.  Kamalapuram  Taluk  —  Kamala- 
puram— Palagiri — Uppalur — Animela — Nidujuvvi — Yerraguntla. 

Pulivendla     Taluk — Vempalle  —  Pulivendla  —  Parnapalle 

Vemula — Chilakampalle — Balapanur  —  Yerraballa  —  Simhadri- 
puram — Peddakudula — Marellamadaka.     Rayachoti  Taluk — 

Rayachoti   —   Tsundupalle  —  Lakkireddipalle  —  Galivedu    

Nulivedu — Sanipaya — Viraballe— Vangimalla — Gadikota — Matli 

— Chiunamandem.     Badvel  Taluk  —  Badvel — Porumamilla 

Sankhavaram — Kalasapad — Kottakota  —  Munelli — Paluguralla- 
palle.  SiDHOUT  Taluk — Siddhavattam — Vontimitta — Madha- 
varam  —  Kuruguntapalle  —  Kotapad  —  Obulam  —  Kondur  — 
Yappirala  —  Gangaperur.  Pullampet  Taluk  —  Raiampet  — 
PuUampet — Chitvel — Pottapi — Kodur — Settigunta — Nandalur — 
Pedda  Orampad — Chinna  Orampad — Penagalur — Tangatur. 

CUDDAPAH  TALUK. 

The  taluk  of  Cuddapah  is  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  CHAP.  XV 
Penner,  mainly  to  the  south  of  that  river  and  east  of  the  Cuddapah 
Papaghni.  The  course  of  the  latter  from  Vempalle  to  its  Taluk. 
junction  with  the  Penner  near  Kamalapuram  forms  a  natural 
boundary  between  the  Cuddapah  and  Kamalapuram  taluks. 
North  of  the  Penner  the  Cuddapah  taluk  embraces  the  south- 
easternmost  corner  of  the  Kunder  valley  and  is  separated 
from  the  Proddatur  taluk  by  an  irregular  boundary  which, 
starting  from  the  Kunder  a  few  miles  north  of  its  confluence 
with  the  Penner,  crosses  the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  and 
the  Kurnool  road  a  little  south  of  Maidukuru,  and  extends  east- 
wards to  the  foot  of  the  Lankamalais.  This  range  and  that 
of  the  Palkondas  constitute  well  defined  and  natural  bound- 
aries on  the  east  and  south  of  the  taluk.  By  the  recent 
creation  of  the  Kamalapuram  taluk  that  of  Cuddapah  was 
23 


178  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  XV.  considerably  reduced  in  area.  It  formerly  extended  westwards 
CuDDAPAH  ^^  ^^^  ^^  ^  point  on  the  Muddaniir-Pulivendla  road  some  six 
Taluk.  miles  south  of  Muddanur  railway  station.  Its  area  now  is 
509  square  miles  and  it  contains  a  little  over  a  hundred  thou- 
sand inhabitants.  It  lies  beyond  the  limits  of  the  black  cotton 
tract  which  overspreads  the  western  taluks,  and  the  prevailing 
soil  is  alluvial  in  origin,  loamy  and  generally  fertile.  The 
country  round  Cuddapah  and,  roughly  speaking,  extending 
north-westwards  through  Chennur  to  the  Kunder  valley  is 
rich  land  and  repays  high  farming,  while  the  area  commanded 
by  the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  in  this  taluk  is  admirably 
suited  to  wet  cultivation.  The  channels  from  the  canal  and 
the  tanks  which  it  feeds  provide  the  best  irrigation  in  the 
district.  The  taluk  also  contains  some  fair-sized  tanks 
unconnected  with  this  system  such  as  those  at  Utukur  and 
Ambavaram  ;  but  these  do  not  afford  so  sure  a  supply  as  the 
river  channels  from  the  Papaghni.  The  Penner  though  a 
larger  river  provides  less  facilities  for  irrigation  in  this  part  of 
its  course  owing  to  the  steepness  of  its  banks.  The  taluk  is 
well  provided  with  roads  which  radiate  from  the  headquarters 
of  the  district,  and  contains  within  its  limits  three  railway 
stations,  namely,  Cuddapah,  Kristnapuram  and  Ganganapalle. 
The  following  is  an  account  of  the  few  places  of  interest  or 
importance  in  the  taluk. 
Cuddapah.  Cuddapah,  the  headquarters  of  the  district,  lies  in  the  angle 
formed  by  the  two  branches  of  the  Palkonda  hills,  one  of 
which  proceeds  northwards  and  merges  into  the  Lankamalais 
while  the  other  passes  due  westwards  a  few  miles  south  of 
the  town.  It  contains  a  population  of  17,807  inhabitants, 
of  whom  nearly  half  are  Musalmans.  All  the  offices  usual 
to  a  district  headquarters  are  located  at  Cuddapah  except 
those  of  the  Executive  Engineer  and  the  Circle  Inspector 
of  the  Salt  and  Abkari  Department.  The  former  officer  is 
stationed  at  Madanapalle  and  the  latter  at  Sidhout.  The  town 
was  constituted  a  municipality  in  the  year  1866.^ 

The  origin  of  the  name  Cuddapah  cannot  be  determined 
with  any  certainty.  It  is  generally  considered  to  be  so  called 
on  account  of  its  position  on  the  threshold  (Gadapa)  of  the 
pass  that  leads  through  the  Vontimitta  valley  to  the  sacred 
hill  of  Tirupati.  Others  derive  the  word  from  *  Kripa  '  signi- 
fying in  Sanskrit  '  mercy.'  In  old  records,  until  the  l8th 
century,  the  name  of  the  place  was  written  as  Kurpa  or 
Kurpah.  It  is  possible  that  Pata  Cuddapah,  the  original 
village,  is  identical  with  Karige  or  Karipe  which  occurs  in  the 
*  See  Chapter  XIV. 


GAZETTEER  179 

geographical  treatise  of  Ptolemy  of  Alexandria  compiled  in  CHAP.  XV. 
the  2nd  century  A.D.^  The  present  town  of  Cuddapah  is  Cuddapah 
believed  to  have  been  founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the   l6th       Taluk. 

century.     After  the  battle   of  Talikota   in   A.D.   1565    which         

marked  the  disruption  of  the  Vijayanagar  Empire,  the  country 
was  overrun  by  bands  of  Musalman  adventurers  in  search  of 
new  settlements.  A  Pathan  officer  in  the  army  of  Golconda, 
by  name  Neiknam  Khan,  penetrated  with  a  few  followers 
into  this  region  and  whether  on  account  of  its  apparent 
fertility  or — which  is  more  probable — its  strategic  possibilities 
he  decided  to  remain.  His  proposal  to  found  a  Musalman 
settlement  here  was  approved  by  the  Sultan  of  Golconda  and 
he  was  permitted  to  name  it  Neiknamabad.  The  first  Nawab 
of  Neiknamabad  was  a  relative  of  the  Sultan,  and  Neiknam 
Khan  himself  was  appointed  the  Nawab's  chief  minister. 
But  the  new  settlement  showed  little  signs  of  thriving.  The 
original  followers  of  Neiknam  Khan  had  been  few,  and  others 
who  subsequently  braved  the  long  journey  eastwards  brought 
no  wealth  with  them  but  had  rather  left  their  homes  with  the 
object  of  repairing  their  shattered  fortunes.  For  some  years 
the  new  Musalman  village  remained  isolated  and  resourceless, 
regarded  with  suspicion  and  distrust  by  the  neighbouring 
Hindu  population.  Neiknamabad  had  been  founded  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  south  of  the  ancient  Kurpah  or  Cuddapah 
which  at  this  time  was  only  known  on  account  of  its  fine 
temple,  the  gift  of  a  Vijayanagar  Emperor.  With  the  Hindus 
of  this  village  the  Nawab  determined  to  make  friends.  In 
this  he  was  successful  and,  by  conceding  them  full  liberty 
to  follow  their  own  religious  and  social  customs,  he  persuaded 
them  to  settle  in  Neiknamabad,  which  from  that  time  forward 
began  to  grow  and  prosper.  In  proof  of  his  good_fairh  the 
Nawab  allowed  the  Hindus  to  erect  a  temple  to  Anjaneya- 
swami  near  his  own  palace  and  mosque.  Though  Neiknama- 
bad grew  populous  partly  at  the  expense  of  Cuddapah,  the 
latter  village  still  continued  to  attract  numbers  of  Hindu 
devotees  on  account  of  its  well-known  temple  to  Sri  Venka- 
teswara.  From  the  proximity  of  Neiknamabad  and  probably 
also  the  fact  that  many  families  had  migrated  thither  from 
Cuddapah,  the  name  of  Cuddapah  came  to  be  applied  by 
Hindus  to  the  Musalman  town  also,  which — except  for  its 
one  attraction — overshadowed  the  Hindu  village  in  every 
particular.  To  the  latter  in  course  of  time  was  given  the 
distinguishing  name  of  Pata  Cuddapah,  which  still  survives. 

'  It   is   so   identified   in   the  Madras   Manual  of  the  Administration,    1S85, 
Volume  I.     Geography,  page  9. 


l80  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  XV.  The    Musalman    rulers    themselves    gradually  accepted    the 
C'JDDAPAH    new  appellation  and  Neiknamabad  became  Cuddapah. 
Taluk.  No  doubt  this  is  approximately  a  true  account  of  the  early 

history  of  Cuddapah.    Jt  contains  no  Hindu  temple  of  any 

antiquity  except  the  Anjaneya  temple  already  alluded  to, 
while  the  Musalman  predominance  is  proved  not  only  by  the 
existence  of  many  old  mosques  and  cemeteries  but  by  the  very 
names  of  the  different  quarters  of  the  town,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  Sayipet,  Almospet,  Meccapet,  Muchimian- 
pet  or  Muchampet  and  Nabikot.  The  Siva  temple  in  Mucham- 
pet  was  constructed  subsequent  to  the  British  occupation. 

The  early  history  of  the  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah  is  wrapped 
in  obscurity.  Their  very  names  are  unknown  though  tradi- 
tion assigns  the  first  Abdul  Nabi  Khan  to  some  period  in 
the  17th  century  and  regards  the  great  Abdul  Nabi  Khan' 
of  the  early  l8th  century  as  the  second  of  that  name.  The 
latter,  though  he  never  brought  the  poligars  to  order,  wielded 
a  more  or  less  effective  authority  over  the  districts  of  Sidhout, 
Cumbum,  Gandikota  and  Gurramkonda.  The  two  latter  were 
strongly  fortified  places  and  served  as  effective  outposts  of 
his  territory.  Abdul  Nabi  was  an  enlightened  ruler  as  well 
as  a  good  soldier.  To  him  is  attributed  the  construction  of 
the  Pata  Cuddapah  tank,  for  the  supply  of  which  he  con- 
structed an  anicut  across  the  Bugga  vanka.  This  anicut  was 
destroyed  by  dynamite  after  the  floods  of  1903,^  and  the  tank 
is  now  supplied  by  a  channel  from  the  Kurnool-Cuddapah 
Canal.  The  Nawab  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  the  year 
1730.  An  outlying  suburb  of  the  town  on  the  other  side  of  the 
vanka  opposite  his  old  palace  is  called  Nabikot,  and  testifies 
to  the  honour  in  which  he  was  held  by  the  people. 

The  following  story  lends  colour  to  the  tradition  that  Abdul 
Nabi  was  a  patron  of  letters.  A  young  Moulvi  of  great 
erudition,  having  heard  of  the  prowess  of  the  Nawab  and  his 
regard  for  learning,  started  out  from  Golconda  to  go  to  Cudda- 
pah to  ask  the  Nawab's  daughter  in  marriage.  But  by  the 
time  he  came  to  the  end  of  his  long  journey  it  was  only  to  find 
that  the  Nawab's  daughter  was  already  married.  The  Nawab 
himself  was  much  disappointed  and  condoled  with  the  young 
man  in  his  misfortune.  The  latter  settled  down  to  a  life 
of  renunciation  and  devoted  himself  to  good  works.  He 
remained  a  bachelor  all  his  life  and  by  his  sanctity  attained 
to  the  dignity  of  a  kablr,  dying  at  Cuddapah  in  his  old  age. 
The  old  Nawab  had  long  since  passed  away,  but  his  tender- 
hearted daughter  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  the  Moulvi,  who 
*  See  Chapter  II.  =»  See  Chapter  VIII, 


GAZETTEER 


I8l 


CHAP.  XV 

cuddapah 
Taluk. 


had  sacrificed  all  for  her,  resolved  to  perpetuate  his  memory. 
In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  a  splendid  mausoleum  which  she 
built  as  a  remembrance  of  the  holy  man.  The  building  is 
included  in  the  List  of  Ancient  Monuments  and  conserved 
by  Government.  The  dome,  which  is  very  handsome,  was 
recently  repaired. 

The  old  fort  of  the  Nawabs  with  its  gateway  flanked  by 
two  towers  is  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  Within  it 
are  now  located  the  jail,  the  District  Forest  offices  and, 
temporarily,  the  Kamalapuram  taluk  office. 

After  the  departure  of  Munro  and  the  bifurcation  of  the 
Ceded  Districts  into  two  Collectorates,  Sidhout  was  for  eight 
years  the  headquarters  of  the  district.  It  was  abandoned 
in  favour  of  Cuddapah  in  the  year  1817.  Four  years  after- 
wards Cuddapah  became  a  cantonment  and  continued  as 
such  till  1868.  The  murder  of  Mr.  Macdonald  in  1832  has 
already  been  referred  to.^ 

The  municipal  water-works  were  opened  in  1890.  They 
are  situated  about  four  miles  to  the  south  of  the  town.  The 
water,  which  is  derived  from  a  number  of  springs  in  the 
Bugga  vanka,  is  collected  into  a  deep  well  from  which  it  is 
pumped  by  motive  power  into  a  large  reservoir  and  conducted 
by  pipes  to  the  town.  In  the  hot  weather  the  supply  has  not 
proved  quite  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  municipality,  and  a 
new  and  deeper  well  has  consequently  been  recently  con- 
structed. It  is  recognized  as  highly  important  in  the  interests 
of  health  that  the  people  of  Cuddapah  should  not  be  com- 
pelled to  resort  to  the  old  wells  in  the  town  which  are  mostly 
contaminated  and  a  fruitful  source  of  disease.  The  pipe 
water  is  extremely  good  and  much  appreciated  by  the  people. 

As  a  trade  centre  Cuddapah  stands  second  only  to  Prodda- 
tur.  In  a  sense  it  is  more  important,  as  it  taps  a  larger  area 
within  the  district.  Most  of  the  trade  of  Badvel,  Sidhout, 
Pulivendla  and  Rayachoti  taluks  passes  through  Cuddapah, 
and  its  situation  on  the  main  line  to  Bombay  facilitates  the 
export  of  its  more  peculiar  products,  such  as  melons  and 
turmeric,  to  all  parts  of  India. 

Chennur  contains,  with  its  five  hamlets,  a  population  of  Chennur 
5,254  and  is  the  largest  union  in  the  taluk.  It  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Penner  seven  miles  north-west  of 
Cuddapah.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  a  firka  revenue  inspector 
and  contains  two  Board  elementary  schools,  one  of  which 
is  reserved  for  Musalmans,  besides  a  Hindu  girls'  school 
up  to  the   third   standard.     The  wet  lands  of  the  village  are 

»  See  Chapter  XIH. 


lS2  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  XV.   mainly  irrigated   by   channels  from    the   Kurnool-Cuddapah 
CuDD.\PAH    Canal   and   are    very  valuable.     The   melons    grown   in   the 
Taluk.       bed   of   the    Penner  are  also  a  source  of  much   gain   to  their 
—         cultivators. 

The  antiquity  of  Chennur  is  proved  by  an  inscription  on  a 
stone  in  the  oldest  part  of  the  village,  from  which  we  learn 
that  in  the  early  part  of  the  l6th  century  when  the  Emperor 
Krishnadeva  was  ruling  at  Vijayanagar  it  was  the  head- 
quarters of  an  administrative  unit  consisting  of  several  villages 
and  extending  as  far  as  Potladurti.  This  old  division  of 
Chennur  was  included  in  the  Gandikota  district  of  the 
Udayagiri  province. 

The  village  contains  two  choultries,  one  in  the  middle  of 
the  village  and  the  other,  of  more  recent  construction,  on  the 
road  from  Cuddapah  about  two  hundred  yards  north  of  the 
Yellammadevata  temple.  It  has  about  half  a  dozen  Hindu 
temples,  a  masjid  of  some  importance  and  a  darga,  none  of 
which  calls  for  particular  notice. 
Vaiiur,  Vallur,  population  3,113,  is  situated  on  the  Bellary  road 

about  ten  miles  north-west  of  Cuddapah.  It  contains  large 
areas  of  channel-irrigated  wet  land  and  specializes  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  variety  of  paddy  called  pishdna  which  is  a 
favourite  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  The  export  of  this 
product  is  said  to  be  the  main  business  of  a  group  of  wealthy 
merchants  residing  in  this  village. 

Many  hundreds  of  years  ago  Vallur  was  a  place  of  con- 
siderable political  importance.  It  was  the  headquarters  of 
a  province  of  the  Chola  kingdom  in  the  I2th  century,  the 
governor  of  which  rebelled  against  the  Chola  king  Kulot- 
tunga  III  and  boasted  to  have  levied  tribute  from  him.  His 
success  was  shortlived,  as  this  Chola  king  subsequently 
reduced  all  his  enemies  and  became  very  powerful.  In  the 
following  century  Vallur  was  also  chosen  by  the  Kakatlya 
kings  of  Warangal  as  their  administrative  headquarters  for 
the  government  of  a  large  tract  of  country  embracing  most  of 
the  present  Cuddapah  district.  It  continued  as  such  till  the 
downfall  of  the  Kakatlyas  in  A.D.  1309,  after  which  it  ceased 
to  be  of  any  importance.  Under  the  Vijayanagar  Empire  it 
was  presumably  included  in  the  Chennur  shna.  It  is  said 
that  the  Emperor  Aurangzebe  established  a  Nawab  at  Vallur 
after  the  downfall  of  the  King  of  Golconda  in  1687.  The 
ruined  Musalman  stronghold  in  the  village  renders  this  possi- 
ble; but  as  we  find  no  such  rival  to  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah 
in  the  early  years  of  the  following  century  Vallur  could  not 
have  been  thus  held  for  many  years. 


GAZETTEER 


183 


Pushpagiri  is  a  hamlet  of  Kotlur,  a  village  situated  on  the 
Penner  about  ten  miles  north-west  of  Cuddapah.  The  hamlet 
takes  its  name  from  the  sacred  hill  of  Pushpagiri,  the  most 
important  religious  centre  in  the  district.  Vaishnavaites 
sometimes  call  it  Tirumala  Madhya  Ahobilam  from  its  posi- 
tion midway  between  Ahobilam  in  Kurnool  and  the  famous 
Tirupati  hill,  both  places  of  great  sanctity,  while  Sivaites 
speak  of  it  as  Madhya  Kailasam  as  it  is  situated  between 
Varanasi  and  Chidambaram  which  are  known  to  devout 
Sivaites  respectively  as  Uttara  and  Dakshina  Kailasam.  Two 
fantastic  stories  are  told  to  account  for  the  name  Pushpagiri 
or  Hill  of  Flowers.  Some  say  that  a  Brahman,  desirous  of 
mingling  the  bones  of  his  father  in  holy  Ganges,  passed  this 
way  and,  setting  down  his  burden,  went  to  bathe  in  the 
Penner.  On  his  return  from  the  river  he  found  the  bones 
had  been  converted  into  jasmine  flowers.  Content  with 
this  miracle  and  assured  that  his  father's  soul  had  gone  to 
heaven  he  resolved  to  go  no  further,  and  cast  the  flowers 
upon  the  waters  of  the  Penner.  The  place  where  the  miracu- 
lous conversion  of  the  bones  took  place  gradually  assumed 
the  form  of  a  hill,  to  which  the  name  of  Pushpagiri  was  given 
to  mark  its  wonderful  origin.  The  second  story,  which  my 
informant  declares  to  be  more  credible,  is  as  follows  :  An 
old  man  of  the  Kapu  caste,  much  worried  by  his  troublesome 
sons  who  neglected  the  estate  and  passed  their  time  in 
quarrelling,  found  himself  obliged  to  labour  in  the  fields  him- 
self and  accordingly  went  forth  to  plough  with  a  pair  of  old 
bulls.  Having  worked  for  some  hours  he  drove  the  cattle  to 
a  large  and  deep  niadiign  or  pool  near  by,  to  give  them  water. 
To  his  astonishment  the  bulls,  as  soon  as  they  had  quenched 
their  thirst,  were  transformed  and  became  young  and  strong. 
The  old  farmer  wondering  at  this  phenomenon  stepped  into 
the  pool  himself  and  on  emerging  found  himself  changed  in 
feelings  and  appearance  to  a  youth  of  sixteen.  His  wife 
meanwhile,  after  upbraiding  her  sons  for  sending  such  an 
old  man  to  work  in  the  fields  had  taken  food  in  a  basket  and 
gone  out  to  search  for  him.  She  found  no  signs  of  him  and 
passing  near  the  pool  asked  the  young  man  if  he  had  seen 
her  husband.  The  youth,  recognizing  the  old  woman  as  his 
wife,  revealed  his  identity  and  told  her  the  story  of  the 
transformation  of  himself  and  the  bulls  by  the  virtue  of  the 
wonderful  pool.  The  woman  would  not  believe,  but  scolded 
the  young  man  for  deceiving  her.  He,  after  bearing  with  her 
for  some  time,  lost  patience  and  dragged  her  to  the  pool  and 
made  her  bathe.     In  a  moment  she  too  was  transformed  and 


CHAP.  XV. 

Cuddapah 

Taluk. 

Pushpagiri. 


1 84 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV.   became    youthful    like    her    husband,    whom    she    forthwith 

CuDDAPAH    recognized.     They  then  partook  of  the  food  she  had  brought 

Taluk.        and  returned   home    in    the    evening   with   the  young   bulls. 

Their  sons  naturally  failed  to  recognize  them,  but  the  truth 

was  gradually  forced  upon  them  and  also  became  known  to 
others,  who  in  their  turn  bathed  in  the  wonderful  pool, 
renewed  their  youth  and  became  immortal.  This  state  of 
things  was  discovered  by  Narada,  the  wanderer  in  the  three 
worlds,  who  went  and  reported  to  Brahma  in  Satyaloka  that 
his  mandates  of  destiny  had  become  null  and  void  by  reason 
of  a  pool  in  the  world  which  contained  amruta  or  nectar  and 
rendered  men  immortal.  Brahma  marvelled  how  a  pool  in 
the  world  could  contain  nectar  which  had  been  hidden 
even  from  the  Rakshasas;  but  on  enquiry  he  learned  from 
Narada  that  it  was  indeed  a  fact,  as  Garuda  when  taking 
nectar  from  Devaloka  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  his  mother 
had  been  attacked  by  the  god  Indra  with  his  diamond 
sword  and  let  fall  a  drop  into  this  very  pool.  Being  at  a 
loss  how  to  remedy  the  matter  Braiima  invoked  the  aid  of 
Mahavishnu.  The  latter  forthwith  ordered  Anjaneya  to  drop 
a  hill  into  the  pool  and  cover  it  up.  This  mandate  was 
obeyed  but  the  hill  instead  of  sinking  into  the  water 
floated  on  the  surface  like  a  flower.  Then  the  gods  all 
joined  together  and  weighed  it  down  while  Vishnu  and 
Rudra  clamped  it  firmly  by  the  imprint  of  their  feet  at 
each  end,  which  are  now  represented  by  two  temples. 
That  the  two  temples  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  hill  and 
not  at  either  end  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  one  of  them 
must  have  been  subsequently  removed  from  its  original 
place. 

Of  the  several  temples  on  the  Pushpagiri  hill  overlooking 
the  river  the  greatest  is  the  temple  of  Chennakeswaraswami 
with  its  lofty  five-storied  gopiiram.  The  front  entrance  is 
approached  by  a  flight  of  steps  from  the  Penner  corresponding 
to  a  similar  flight  on  the  opposite  or  right  bank  of  the  river 
which  leads  from  the  village.  At  the  time  of  the  more 
important  festivals  the  local  authorities  and  the  police  make 
suitable  arrangements  for  their  satisfactory  celebration  and 
the  control  of  the  crowds  that  assemble.  The  great  brahm- 
otsavam  takes  place  about  the  middle  of  April,  with  a  grand 
elephant  procession  and  car  festival,  and  attracts  about  50,000 
people. 

At  Adinimmayapalle,  about  a  mile  above  Pushpagiri,  the 
Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  crosses  the  Penner  by  an  aqueduct 


GAZETTEER  185 

near  which  is  a  travellers'  bungalow  belonging  to  the  Public  cHAP  XV 

Works  Department.  Cuddapah 

Pcndlimarri   is   a  thriving    village,   about   fourteen    miles       Taluk. 

south-west  of  Cuddapah,  on  the  road  to  Vempalle.     It  has  a  ,,     ,T       • 

,      .  -  .  ,.  Pendhmarn. 

population  of  1,419  and  contams  a  police  station  and  a 
travellers'  bungalow.  The  latter  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a 
tope  by  the  roadside  a  little  east  of  the  village.  Pendlimarri 
is  the  headquarters  of  a  firka  revenue  inspector.  The  name  is 
a  composition  of  the  Telugu  words  pendli,  marriage,  and  marri, 
a  banyan  tree,  and  a  story  has  been  invented  to  account  for 
its  origin,  but  there  is  no  large  banyan  tree  near  the  village 
at  the  present  day.  Some  houses  on  the  western  side  of  the 
village  are  enclosed  in  a  ruined  fort,  the  date  of  the  construc- 
tion of  which  is  not  ascertainable.  The  proximity  of  the 
village  to  Cuddapah  renders  it  unlikely  that  it  was  ever  the 
seat  of  a  poligar,  as  even  the  weakest  of  the  Nawabs  of 
Cuddapah  were  probably  able  to  maintain  their  authority 
unquestioned  within  a  radius  of  twenty  miles  of  their  head- 
quarters. The  fort  is  also  within  the  village,  while  poligars' 
forts  were  generally  built  at  a  little  distance  from  the  village- 
sites.  That  Pendlimarri  is  of  great  antiquity  is  proved  by  an 
inscription  in  a  temple  of  a  neighbouring  village  from  which 
we  find  that  a  certain  Kathari  Mangayya  was  ruling  "  Pendli- 
marri and  Tummaliir"  in  the  year  S.S.  1292  (A.D,  1370) 
during  the  reign  of  the  Vijayanagar  Emperor  Bukka  I. 

The  village  contains  a  temple  of  Virabhadraswami,  in 
which  religious  service  is  conducted  once  a  week.  The  piijdri 
is  a  goldsmith. 

Chinnadasaripallc  is  situated  about  two  miles  south-west  chinna- 
of  Pendlimarri.  It  is  quite  a  small  village,  but  contains  a  fine  dasaripaiic 
temple  of  Lakshmi  Narasimhaswami  picturesquely  situated 
in  "the  valley  of  a  thousand  wells,"  Ont(tula  (a  corruption  of 
veyyinutnla)  kona.  Like  other  beauty  spots  in  the  Palkonda 
hills,  blessed  with  perennial  springs  of  water  in  a  thirsty 
land,  this  kona  is  regarded  as  a  place  of  great  sanctity,  and 
the  annual  festival  in  May  attracts  large  crowds  to  the  temple. 
This  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  south  of  the  village  and 
formerly  the  only  way  to  it  lay  along  the  bed  of  the  hill 
stream  which  rises  at  the  "  thousand  wells."  Subsequently  a 
cobble-stone  cart-track  was  constructed  by  a  devotee  of  the 
temple,  so  that  carts  can  now  be  taken  as  far  as  its  very 
entrance.  About  a  hundred  yards  from  the  temple,  towards 
tne  hills,  are  three  stones  bearing  inscriptions,  one  of  which  is 
undecipherable.  Of  the  others  one  is  that  already  referred  to 
above  which  refers  to  the  ruler  of  Pendlimarri  and  Tummaliir 
24 


1 86  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  XV.   in  the  reign  of  Bukka  I.     The  other  records  the  remission  of 
Cud  D.A.PAH  taxes  on  weavers'  looms  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Achyuta. 
Taluk.       The  date  is  illegible,  but  from  the  mention  of  the  Emperor's 
name  it  must  fall  between  A.D.  1530  and  1544. 
|-*^i°^^-  .  Chintakommadinne   is  situated   some  six  miles    south   of 

Cuddapah  and  about  a  mile  west  of  the  road  from  Cuddapah 
to  Rayachoti.  Inclusive  of  its  seven  hamlets,  it  has  a  popula- 
tion of  3,017  inhabitants  and  thus  deserves  notice  on  account 
of  its  size  though  possessing  no  feature  of  peculiar  interest. 
It  contains  a  tank  with  a  waterspread  of  more  than  three  hun- 
dred acres  which,  for  Cuddapah  taluk,  is  fairly  large.  An  in- 
scription near  the  bund  of  the  tank  records  the  grant  of  some 
lands  to  Reddis,  Karnams,  Kapus  and  Kammas  foi  having 
repaired  and  strengthened  the  bund  in  S.S.  1669,  i.e.,  A.D.  1747- 
It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  in  this  village  as  in  others 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cuddapah  (where  the  practice  also 
prevails)  white  butter  is  used  instead  of  ghee  and  is  retailed 
by  weight  instead  of  by  measure,  being  sold  at  so  much  per 
seer  of  twenty-four  tolas. 

An  inscription  in  the  temple  of  Janardanaswami  records 
that  in  S.S.  1478  or  A.D.  1556  in  the  time  of  the  Vijayanagar 
Emperor  Sadasiva  tv/o  fields,  one  wet  and  the  other  dry,  were 
gifted  to  the  temple  by  one  Yellappa  Nayaningadu  for  the 
performance  of  religious  services. 
Khajipcta-  Khajipetasunkcsula,    population  2,228,  is  a  village  about 

sunkesuia.  fQ^j-  niiles  due  north  of  Pushpagiri  and  some  twelve  miles  north- 
west of  Cuddapah.  It  contains  a  police  station,  two  Board 
elementary  schools — one  for  Musalmans — and  a  branch 
post  office.  Sunkesuia  is  a  common  name  of  villages  in  this 
part  of  the  country  and  the  prefix  Khajipet  is  employed  to 
distinguish  this  village  from  other  Sunkesulas.  The  village 
of  Khajipet  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  one  Meera  Khan,  a 
captain  in  the  army  of  one  of  the  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah. 

No  account  of  Khajipetasunkcsula,  however  brief,  would 
be  complete  without  some  mention  of  Duggi  Reddi  Venkata 
Reddi,  headman  of  the  village  from  1870  to  1904.  His  term  of 
office  was  marked  by  exceptional  efficiency  and  the  utmost 
devotion  to  duty.  In  the  early  years  of  his  life,  before  the 
great  famine,  he  already  gave  such  proof  of  his  ability  that 
a  Tahsildar  of  Cuddapah  wanted  him  to  be  made  a  revenue 
inspector.  For  having  superintended  the  construction  of  a 
road  from  Khajipet  to  Kamalapuram  during  the  great  famine 
he  was  rewarded  with  a  gold  bangle  on  which  is  an  inscription 
to  the  effect  that  it  was  presented  to  him  by  Government  "  as 
a  reward  for  conspicuous   energy    and   devotion   to  duty  in 


GAZETTEER  187 

connection  with  the  execution  of  relief  works  during  the  famine   CHAP.  XV'. 
of  1877."     His  whole-hearted  co-operation  with  Mr.  MacCartic    Clddapah 
in  his  successful  introduction  of  prickly-pear  as  cattle  fodder'       Taluk. 
in  1877  was  also  commended   by  Government.     Later  on  he 
was  given  a  silver  ring  as  a  reward  for  promoting  vaccination. 
Throughout  his  term  of  office  he  was  frequently  employed  in 
assisting   less  efficient  village  officers  to  collect  outstanding 
balances.     He  was  a  taluk  board  member  from  1886  to    1903 
and  in  the   latter  year  was  elected  a  member  of  the  District 
Board.     As  remarkable  as   his  long  and  faithful   service  to 
Government  was  his  devotion  to  public  charities,  in  recognition 
of  which  he  was  in  1903  granted  a  certificate  by  the  Viceroy 
in  the  name  of  His  Majesty  the  King-Emperor. 

Nandimandalam  is  a  large  village  situated  on  the  right  bank  Nandi- 
of  the  Papaghni  about  six  miles  north-east  of  Vempalle,  at  "■'*"''^'^'"- 
the  trijunction  of  the  three  taluks  of  Pulivendla,  Kamalapuram 
and  Cuddapah.  The  village  is  said  to  have  been  an  important 
place  many  years  ago  and  inhabited  chiefly  by  Chandravamsa 
Razus.  People  of  the  Razu  caste  calling  themselves  Nandi- 
mandalam Razulu  are  found  in  various  parts  of  this  and  the 
adjoining  districts,  but  the  circumstances  of  their  dispersal 
are  not  known.  It  is  said  that  they  suffered  a  crushing  defeat 
at  the  hands  of  Musalmans  who  took  their  territory,  and  that 
their  womenfolk,  whom  they  had  left  in  the  village  when  they 
went  out  to  battle,  hearing  of  their  defeat,  joined  together  and 
made  a  pit  of  fire  into  which  they  threw  themselves  to  escape 
the  consequences  of  capture  b}'^  the  Musalmans. 

An  enclave  in  the  Palkonda  hills  to  the  south  of  the  village, 
approached  by  a  narrow  winding  gorge,  contains  some  peren- 
nial springs,  which  as  usual  are  regarded  as  sacred,  ami  a 
temple  to  Chennakesavaswami.  The  god  is  also  called  Kona 
Chennarayaswami  on  account  of  the  locality. 

JAMMALAMADUGU  TALUK. 

This  taluk  occupies  the  north-western  corner  of  the  district.  Jammala- 
On  three  sides  its  boundaries  are  artificial,  while  on  the  south  m^^dcgi- 
it  is  separated  from  Pulivendla  taluk  by  the  BhanukOta  ami 
Mallyala  hills  which  mark  the  first  uprising  of  the  Erramala 
range  from  the  western  boundary  of  Kamalapuram  taluk  to 
where  it  abuts  on  the  Chitravati  river.  Proddatur  and  Kamala- 
puram taluks  adjoin  it  on  the  east,  while  on  the  north  and  west 
are  respectively  the  Koilkuntla  taluk  of  Kurnool  and  the  Tfui- 
patri  taluk  of  Anantapur  district.  The  Cuddapah,  Anantapur 
and  Kurnool  districts  meet  on  the  Gandikota  hills  v^'hich  start 

1  See  Chapter  VIII. 


Tai.ik. 


CiUDOAPAPt 


CHAP.  XV. 

Jammala- 

MADUGU 

Taluk. 


lammalama- 


a  few  miles  west  of  Proddatur  and  traverse  Jamnialamadugu 
taluk  in  a  north-westerly  direction  to  the  Kurnool  frontier. 
The  Penner  river  enters  the  taluk  near  Kodur  in  the  west  and 
skirts  the  southern  flank  of  the  Gandikota  hills  as  far  as 
Gandlur  where  the  Chitravati  joins  it  from  the  south.  Thence 
the  stream  turns  slightly  north  and  forces  its  way  by  a  wind- 
ing narrow  gorge  through  the  Gandikota  hills.  A  few  miles 
further  down  it  takes  a  sharp  curve  near  Jammalamadugu  and 
proceeds  south-eastwards  across  the  black  cotton  plain  into 
Proddatur  taluk. 

The  entire  taluk  lies  within  the  black  cotton  tract.  The 
purest  stretch  of  this  soil  lies  north  of  the  Penner  and  attains 
its  highest  development  north  and  east  of  Jammalamadugu 
towards  the  adjacent  taluk  of  Proddatur,  where  it  attains  a 
depth  of  twenty  feet  or  more.  The  cotton  soils  in  the  south- 
west of  the  taluk  adjoining  the  Tadpatri  plain  are  not  much 
inferior  to  those  north  of  the  Penner,  but  show  a  fair  general 
average  of  fertility  rather  than  any  marked  superiority. 
Owing  to  the  nature  of  this  tract  there  is  less  irrigation  in 
Jammalamadugu  than  in  any  other  taluk  of  the  district,  but 
such  as  it  has  is  mainly  afforded  by  excellent  river  channels 
from  the  Chitravati  and  Penner.     There  are  but  few-tanks. 

The  area  of  the  taluk  is609  square  miles  and  its  population 
106,350.     It  contains  but  one  town. 

Jammalamadugu,  the  second  largest  in  the  district,  with  a 
population  of  16,099.  This,  the  headquarters  of  the  taluk 
and  of  the  Divisional  Officer,  is  situated  in  a  central  position  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Penner,  twelve  miles  from  Muddanur 
railway  station.  The  town  is  compactly  built  round  the  fort 
which  commands  the  river.  Since  the  redistribution  of  dis- 
tricts in  191 1  it  has  been  the  headquarters  of  the  Assistant 
Superintendent  of  Police.  An  Inspector  of  the  Salt  and 
Abkari  Department  is  also  to  be  stationed  here  shortly,  in 
charge  of  the  recently  sanctioned  circle.  The  town  was 
constituted  a  union  in  1886  and  contains,  besides  the  Union 
office,  a  Sub-Registrar's  office,  a  police  station,  a  combined 
post  and  telegraph  office,  travellers' bungalow  and  local  fund 
market.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  London  Mission  Society 
in  this  district,  whose  substantial  stone  bungalows  in  their 
extensive  compounds  to  the  north  of  the  town  have  added 
much  to  its  appearance.  The  Local  Fund  dispensary  was 
closed  some  years  ago,  as  the  London  Mission  hospital 
supplies  all  the  medical  needs  of  the  neighbourhood.  The 
principal  trade  of  the  town  is  in  cotton.  Weaving  of  a 
more  ambitious  character  than  usual  is  carried  on  by  families 


GAZETTEER  l8g 

of   Mahratta    extraction.     In    addition    to   turbans  which  arc    chap.  XV 

chiefly  exported  to  the  Bombay  Presidency  there  is  also  a  con-     Jammala- 

siderable  manufacture  of  coloured  table-cloths,  curtains   and      madugu 

similar  articles,   which   are  dyed   by   Rangarazus  and  block-       Taluk. 

stamped  with  patterns  of   animals    and  birds.     The   largest 

temple  in    the   place,  dedicated  to  Venkateswaraswami,   lies 

about  half  a  mile  to  the  south-west  of  the   town   literally  in 

a  sand  heap  on  the  banks  of  the   Penner.     In  the    Musalman 

cemetery — also  on   the  bank  of  the  river — is  the  grave  of  the 

first  and  last  Nawab  of  Jammalamiidugu,  Abdul  Syed  Khan, 

to  whom  the  town  and  the  surrounding  territory  were  granted 

as  a  jaghir  by  Tipu.     Legend  relates  that  the  Nawab  declined 

to  allow  his  last  resting   place  to  be  covered   even   with  the 

slab  of  stone  which  is  shown  close  by,  and  the  simple  earthen 

mound  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  large  and  ornate  tomb  of 

his  wife   not  far  distant.     A   descendant  of  the  Nawab  still 

receives  an   allowance  from  Government  for  the  upkeep  of 

the  mosque. 

Pcddamudiyam,  a  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kunder  I'edtlanui.ii- 
about  12  miles  north  of  Jammalamadugu.  To  the  west  of  the  -^^"'" 
village  there  is  an  extensive  pddit  or  old  village-site  on  which 
is  situated  a  group  of  ancient  temples.  The  central  one  is 
dedicated  to  MukkantTsvara  or  the  three-eyed  Siva.  To  the 
left  of  this  is  a  temple  of  Naraslmhaswami  in  whose  honour  a 
new  image  has  been  set  up  by  the  piety  of  a  Reddi  of  the 
village.  A  small  shrine  at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  site 
shelters  the  village  goddess  Mademma,  while  in  the  north- 
west corner  there  is  an  old  Vishnu  temple  falling  into  ruins. 
The  chief  interest  attaching  to  the  place  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  seems  to  have  been  the  birth-place  of  Vishnuvard-hana 
who  founded  the  Chalukyan  Empire.  The  arguments  in 
favour  of  this  view  are  ably  set  forth  by  Mr.  J.  Ramayya 
Pantulu  in  a  note,  printed  in  the  Report  of  the  Archaeological 
Survey  for  1904-05,  which  is  unfortunately  too  long  to  give 
in  extetiso.  The  story  of  Vishnuvardhana's  birth  may  be 
given  in  Mr.  Ramayya's  own  words:  "According  to  the 
Chelliir  plates  of  Vlrachoda  among  others  (South  Indian 
Inscriptions,  Vol.  I,  49),  Vijayaditya,  a  prince  of  the  lunar  race 
and  the  67th  in  the  direct  line  of  descent  from  Arjuna,  left  his 
ancestral  home  at  Ayodhya  and  went  to  the  southern  country 
(Dakshinapatha)  in  quest  of  territory.  He  fought  with  the 
Pallava  king  Mukkanti  alias  Trilochana  and  was  killed.  His 
queen  who  was  pregnant  escaped  with  the  purohits  and 
ministers  and  took  shelter  under  a  pious  Brahman  named 
Vishnubatta  Somayajin  in  the  Agrahara  of  Mudivemu.     The 


190 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV 

Jammala- 

MADUGU 

Taluk. 


Kodur. 


Brahman  treated  the  tiueen  as  his  own  daughter  and  when  she 
gave  birth  to  a  son,  he  named  him  Vishnuvardhana.  When 
the  prince  grew  up  he  learnt  from  his  mother  the  history  of  his 
family  and,  resolving  to  accomplish  what  his  father  had  failed 
in,  he  proceeded  to  the  Chalukya  hill  and  made  penance  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  gods,  by  whose  grace  he  collected  a 
large  army  and  conquered  the  Kadambas,  the  Gangas,  etc., 
and  ruled  the  country  from  the  Narbuda  to  the  bridge  of 
Rama."  Mr.  Ramayya's  argument  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
an  old  Canarese  inscription  of  the  Mukkantlsvara  temple  gives 
the  name  of  the  village  as  Mudivemu  and  describes  it  as  an 
agraharam  of  pious  Brahmans  who  are  referred  to  as  "  a 
lotus  tank  to  the  birth  of  the  sun-  that  was  king  Vishnu- 
vardhana." That  the  Pallavas  ruled  over  this  part  of  the 
country  can  scarcely  be  doubted  as  their  inscriptions  have 
been  found  as  far  as  Bellary. 

Whatever  truth  lies  concealed  in  the  story  of  Vishnu- 
vardhana's  birth,  of  the  immense  antiquity  of  the  place  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  Over  the  whole  of  the  village-site  is  a 
thick  deposit  of  debris  wherein  a  large  number  of  interesting 
finds  were  made.  Earliest  of  all  come  celts  and  implements 
of  monolithic  times  to  connect  the  place  with  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  South  India,  while  Buddhist  coins  of  the 
Andhra  dynasty,  archaic  sculptures,  ancient  implements  and 
ornaments  show  that  so  far  back  as  South  Indian  history  can 
be  traced  Peddamudiyam  was  a  centre  of  civilized  life.  Its 
inscriptions  give  the  connecting  lines  through  Pallavas, 
Chalukyans  and  Cholas  down  to  the  Vijayanagar  kings,  and 
further  discoveries  in  this  region  may  help  to  lift  yet  higher 
the  curtain  that  still  shrouds  so  much  of  the  period  between 
the  fables  of  the  Ramayana  and  the  foundation  of  Vijaya- 
nagar. 

Kodur,  population  2,020,  is  situated  in  the  extreme  west  of 
the  taluk,  about  a  mile  north  of  the  Penner.  The  limits  of  the 
village  extend  about  seven  miles  northwards  into  the  Erra- 
malas  and  up  to  the  Kurnool  frontier.  Half-way  across  the 
hills  about  five  miles  north-east  of  Kodur  is  a  hamlet  called 
Dabbudapalle  situated  on  a  plateau  which  at  an  altitude  of 
about  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  plain  extends  along 
the  centre  of  the  range  from  the  vicinity  of  the  Gandikota 
gorge  north-westwards  to  the  trijunction  of  the  Cuddapah, 
Anantapur  and  Kurnool  districts.  Near  this  hamlet  is  a 
strongly  built  stone  fort,  which  appears  to  have  been  an  out- 
post of  the  Gandikota  stronghold  during  the  time  of  the 
Cuddapah  Nawabs. 


GAZETTEER  I9I 

As  in  other  "  dry  "  villages  of  this  taluk  the  principal  crops   CHAl'.  XV, 
grown  are  cholam,  groundnut  and  cotton.     The  ryots  them-     Jammala- 
selves  convey  their  cotton  to  Tadpatri,  vi'hich   is  only  seven       madugu 
miles  distant,  and  sell  it  in  the  mills.  Ialuk. 

In  the  temple  of  Chennakesavaswami  to  the  north  of  the 
village  there  are  three  stone  inscriptions  recording  grants  to 
the  temple  during  the  reign  of  the  Vijayanagar  Emperor  Sada- 
siva.  One  of  them  mentions  a  certain  Yenugula  Papa  Nayudu 
as  a  minister  of  Ramaraju,  the  great  Hemraj  of  Muhammatian 
historians,  who  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Talikota  in  A.D. 
1565.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  is  still  a  family  of 
this  name — Yenugula — residing  in  Dabbudapalle,  the  hamlet 
above  referred  to. 

Gandikota  is  a  village  of  less  than  a  thousand  inhabitants,  t'^^ndikoia. 
situated  on  a  hill  about  five  miles  west  of  Jammalamadugu. 
The  name  is  comprised  of  two  Telugu  words,  gaudi,  a  gorge, 
and  kota,  a  fort  ;  and  in  these  lie  all  the  interest  and  import- 
ance that  the  place  possesses.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  striking 
spot  in  the  district.  The  gorge  where  the  Penner  has  cut  its 
way  through  sheer  rugged  cliffs  of  bedded  sandstone  some 
two  or  three  hundred  feet  high  is  four  miles  long,  and  the 
height  overlooking  the  river  on  the  south  bank  is  crowned  by 
extensive  fortifications,  which,  even  apart  from  their  historical 
associations,  are  well  worthy  of  a  visit. 

The  following  is  the  purport,  omitting  irrelevancies,  of  the 
sthala  piirdtia  relating  to  the  foundation  of  the  village  and  its 
fortification,  as  well  as  the  building  of  the  temple  of  Madhava- 
swami.  In  the  1213th  year  of  the  era  of  Salivahana  there 
lived  a  certain  king  called  Kaka  Maharaju  in  Bommanapalle, 
a  village  close  by  Yerrakonda,  about  two  miles  to  the  east  of 
the  Penner.  The  site  of  Gandikota  was  discovered  b}^  this 
king  during  a  hunting  expedition  and,  being  struck  with  the 
place,  he  made  enquiries  and,  finding  it  was  sacred,  took 
counsel  with  learned  men  who  advised  him  to  found  a  village 
which  would  flourish.  He  accordingly  founded  the  village 
and  fortified  the  hill  which  afterwards  came  to  be  known  as 
Gandikota.  In  the  1297th  year  of  the  Salivahana  era,  con- 
tinues the  record,  Harihara  Bukkarayalu  reigned  in  Vijaya- 
nagar. His  reign  was  very  prosperous.  He  visited  Benares 
anci  brought  water  from  the  holy  Ganges,  and  on  his  way  back 
he  found  the  images  of  fom^  gods  buried  in  the  sand  of  the 
Godavari  river.  These  he  was  miraculously  instructed  to 
instal  in  newly-built  temples.  On  his  return  to  his  capital 
the  king  built  two  temples  for  two  of  the  gods  at  Gooty  and 
Sashagmndipuram   (Pamidi).     Then   he    came   to   Gandikota 


192 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 
Jammala- 

MADUGU 

Taluk. 


and  saw  the  fort.  While  he  was  out  hunting,  the  god 
Madhavaswami  appeared  and  told  him  that  as  the  place  was 
sacred  and  contained  many  holy  streams  he  ought  to  build  a 
temple  there.     The  king  accordingly  did  so. 

The  point  of  most  interest   in  the  above  account  is  the 
name  of  the  king,  Kaka  Maharaju,  who  is  said  to  have  built 
the  fort,  and  the  date  of  its   construction,  which   corresponds 
to  A.D.  1290.     We  know  from  recently  discovered  inscriptions 
that  in  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  century  the  Kakatlya  kings 
of  Warangal  held  sway  over  the  greater  part  of  Cuddapah 
district,  ruling  the  province  from  Vallur.^     It  seems  to  be  a 
legitimate  conclusion   that  the  Kaka  Maharaju  of  the  sthala 
purdna  was  either  the  Kakatlya  king  himself,  that   is,  Amba- 
deva  the  usurper  or  his  successor  Prataparudra,  or  possibly 
his  viceroy  ruling  at  Vallur.     That  the    account  should  omit 
all  reference  to  the  eventful   period   between  the  building  of 
the  fort  by  Kaka  Maharaju  and  the  building  of  the  temple  by 
"  Harihara  Bukkarayalu  "  is  in  no  way  remarkable,  for  it  was 
a  time  of  great  political  disturbance.     In  A.D.  1309  the  Deccan 
was   invaded  by  the  Muhammadans,  the  Kakatlya   dynasty 
was  overthrown,  and  it  was  not  till  A.D.  1344   that  the  Hindu 
confederation     drove    back     the    invaders     and    established 
the    kingdom    of   Vijayanagar.     The   sthala  purdna   regards 
"  Harihara  Bukkarayalu  "  as  the  name  of  one  man.     Harihara 
and  Bukka  were  in  reality  the  two  brothers,-  refugees  from 
Warangal,    who   engineered    the    Hindu  confederation    and 
subsequently    founded    the    Vijayanagar    Empire.     Bukka  I 
reigned  from  A.D.  1352  to   1376,  and  S.S.  1297,  mentioned   in 
the  sthala  purdna,  corresponds  to  the  year  A.D.  1375.     During 
the  Vijayanagar    ascendancy  Gandikota  s'nna  was  a  district 
embracing    the    present    taluks    of    Pulivendla,     Proddatur, 
Kamalapuram  and  Cuddapah,  and  possibly  a  part  of  Kurnool 
district.     It  was  subordinate   to    the  Udayagiri  province,  the 
Governor   of    which   was    generally    a    near   relative    of   the 
reigning  emperor. 

The  sthala  purdna  contains  two  other  dates.  It  is  related 
that  Harihara  Bukkaraju  who  succeeded  Kaka  Maharaju  was 
himself  succeeded  by  Krishnarayalu  in  S.S.  1421.  Krishna- 
raya  was  the  most  famous  emperor  after  Bukka  I,  but  more 
than  a  century  elapsed  between  their  reigns.  The  date  of 
his  accession  was  really  S.S.  1431,  corresponding  to  A.D.  1509 
or  ten  years  later  than  the  date  given  in  the  sthala  purdna, 
which  may  be  due  to  a  clerical  error.     The  last  date  given  in 


1  See  Chapter  II, 
■■*  According  to  Sewell 


"A  forgotten  Empire. 


GAZETTEER 


5  93 


the  record  is  S.S.  1523  or  A.D.  1601,  when  it  is  said 
Krishnaraya  was  followed  by  one  Thimma  Nayudu.  In  the 
latter's  time  the  fort  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Muhammadans. 
By  Thimma  Nayudu  may  be  meant  Timmala,  the  brother  and 
successor  of  Ramaraja,  who  conserved  part  of  the  empire 
after  the  battle  of  Talikota  and  ruled  from  Penukonda.  But 
if  the  date  is  correct  Thimma  Nayudu  cannot  be  the  Emperor 
Timmala,  nor  is  it  likely  on  general  grounds  that  the 
emperor  would  be  styled  Nayudu  without  the  usual  royal 
titles.  It  seems  more  probable  that  a  local  officer  of  the 
Vijayanagar  empire  made  himself  master  of  Gandikota  after 
the  downfall  of  the  Emperor  at  Talikota  and  maintained 
his  independence  for  several  years  till  the  forces  of  Golconda 
turned  their  attention  to  this  part  of  the  country  after  dis- 
lodging the  Hindus  from  Penukonda  towards  the  end  of  the 
l6th  century. 

The  king  of  Golconda  was  not  slow  to  recognize  the 
strategical  importance  of  Gandikota,  and  it  became  the 
headquarters  of  a  Nawab.  The  name  of  the  first  Nawab  is 
said  to  have  been  Meer  Jumla.  His  name  is  held  in  the 
utmost  abhorrence  on  account  of  his  intolerance  of  the  Hindu 
religion  and  his  desecration  of  the  temples,  the  materials  of 
which  he  used  for  the  construction  of  the  Jumma  Masjid.  He 
is  said  to  have  killed  the  hundred  cows  belonging  to  the 
Madhavaswami  temple.  He  greatly  strengthened  the  fortifi- 
cations and  is  supposed  to  have  been  recalled  by  the  king  of 
Golconda  on  account  of  having  boasted  when  rebuilding  a 
part  of  the  dilapidated  fort  that  the  king  would  never  enter 
it  without  his  permission.  The  State  granary  within  the 
fortifications— now  used  as  a  travellers'  bungalow — was  built 
by  Meer  Jumla  or  one  of  his  successors,  the  names  of  six  of 
whom  are  on  record,  though  nothing  is  known  of  them. 

Early  in  the  l8th  century  Abdul  Nabi  Khan,  the  greatest 
of  the  Cuddapah  Nawabs,  extended  his  authority  over  this 
part  of  the  district,  and  Gandikota  became  an  important 
outpost  of  his  territories.  It  was  here  that  his  grandson,^ 
whose  name  was  also  Abdul  Nabi,  sent  his  family  for 
security  after  his  defeat  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1740.  The  fort 
presumably  fell  into  the  hands  of  Haidar  Ali  or  Tipu  Sultan 
after  the  defeat  and  deportation  of  the  last  Nawab  of  Cudda- 
pah in  1780.  The  fortifications  were,  it  is  said,  still  mounted 
with  cannon  and  contained  ammunition  at  the  time  of  the 
cession  to  the  East  India  Company.  Some  cannon  balls  are 
preserved  in  the  Jammalamadugu  taluk  office  to  this  day. 

'  The  relaiionship  is  doubtful,  see  Chapter  11. 
25 


CHAP.  XV. 

J AM MALA - 
.MADUGL 

Taluk. 


194 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 
Jammala- 

MADUGU 

Taluk. 


Gandlur. 


Tallaprod- 
datur. 


Within  the  fort  are  several  wells,  strongly  revetted  and 
provided  with  stone  steps,  and  a  koneni  known  as  Rayalcheruvu 
the  springs  of  which  are  perennial.  These  provide  irrigation 
for  the  numerous  lime  and  plantain  gardens  which  are  a 
feature  of  the  place. 

Gandlur,  population  1,075,  is  situated  on  the  Madras-Bellary 
road  about  half  a  mile  south  of  the  confluence  of  the  Penner 
and  Chitravati.  The  nearest  railway  station  is  Kondapuram, 
two  miles  to  the  south-west.  There  was  formerly  a  police 
station  here,  but  it  was  recently  removed  to  Tallaproddatur. 
In  the  great  storm  of  May  1851  the  floods  caused  much  damage 
to  Gandlur,  but  it  is  said  no  lives  were  lost.  Such  was  not 
the  case  with  Chautapalle  on  the  other  bank  of  the  river, 
which  was  completely  washed  away,  nearly  all  its  inhabitants 
being  drowned.  Evidence  of  previous  floods  is  afforded  by 
the  existence  of  a  ruined  temple  between  Gandlur  and  the 
river,  which  is  almost  completely  buried  in  sand. 

Close  to  the  confluence,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river, 
are  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Sangameswaraswami.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Muhammadans  who 
built  near  its  site  the  village  of  Nekunampet  which  was 
granted,  and  is  still  held,  for  the  upkeep  of  the  masjid  at 
Gandikota. 

About  three  miles  south  of  Gandlur  there  is  a  wooded 
hollow  in  the  Erramalas  containing  a  picturesque  waterfall 
and  perennial  springs.  The  place  is  called  Guriginjakona. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  hamlet  of  Kottalapalle  have 
taken  advantage  of  the  excellent  soil  and  water-supply  to 
plant  gardens  of  lime  trees,  plantains,  mangoes  and  turmeric, 
the  produce  of  which  finds  a  ready  market  at  Jammala- 
madugu  and  the  weekly  fairs  at  Yetur  and  Simhadripuram. 
Like  similar  spots,  Guriginjakona  is  sacred  and  contains  an 
ancient  temple  of  Venkateswaraswami,  opposite  to  which  is 
an  exceptionally  large  banyan  tree.  Near  Gandlur  is  a  forest 
tope  of  about  thirty- eight  acres  in  extent,  containing  mango 
and  tamarind  trees.  The  produce  is  annually  sold  by  auction. 
The  Forest  Department  maintains  a  watcher  to  look  after 
this  tope  and  the  one  at  Obannapet  near  Kondapuram 
railway  station. 

Tallaproddatur  is  a  thriving  village  situated  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Penner  about  eighteen  miles  west  of  Jammala- 
madugu.  It  lies  close  to  the  Bellary  road  and  about  two  miles 
north  of  Regadipalle,  the  nearest  railway  station.  In  the  last 
twenty  years  its  population,  which  is  now  1,675,  has  increased 
by  30  per  cent.    The  village  contains  a  police  station  and  a 


GAZETTEER 


195 


local   fund    choultry.      A   mango    tope    on    the     river    bank 
provides  a  good  camping  ground. 

Tallaproddatur  contains  about  a  hundred  handlooms,  and 
is  a  weaving  centre  of  some  importance.  The  workers,  who 
are  mostly  Padma  Sales,  Thogatas  and  a  few  Musalmans 
are,  like  the  weavers  of  many  other  villages  in  the  west  of 
this  taluk,  employed  by  Tadpatri  merchants  who  supply  them 
with  yarn  and  pay  them  piece-work  wages.  The  better 
kinds  of  cloths  woven  in  this  and  neighbouring  villages  are 
said  to  be  exported  to  Hubli,  Dharwar,  Gulburga  and  other 
distant  places. 

Near  the  village  to  the  west  are  two  Musalman  tombs 
concerning  which  a  queer  story  is  told.  One  of  these  tombs 
is  dedicated  to  a  certain  Caliph  and  the  other  to  his  rat.  It  is 
said  that  the  Caliph  used  to  pass  all  his  time  in  a  masjid  near 
his  house  saying  prayers.  The  rat  used  to  supply  him  with 
provisions  every  day.  It  happened  once  that  the  Caliph's  rat 
went  to  a  Musalman's  house  and  devoured  some  food  that  had 
been  prepared  for  him.  The  Musalman  in  a  rage  struck  at 
the  rat  with  a  stick  and  killed  it.  Alarmed  at  what  he  had 
done  and  fearing  the  wrath  of  the  Caliph,  he  went  to  the 
Caliph  and  told  him  what  had  happened,  showing  him  the 
corpse  of  his  beloved  rat.  The  Caliph  was  so  horrified  at  the 
sight  that  he  immediately  expired.  The  heinousness  of  his 
sin  so  weighed  on  the  Musalman's  mind  that  he  erected  two 
tombs  side  by  side,  one  to  the  Caliph  and  the  other  to  his  rat. 
The  tombs  are  still  maintained  by  the  Musalman's  descend- 
ants who  live  close  by. 

Yctur,  population  1,379,  is  situated  in  the  south-west  of 
the  taluk,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Chitravati,  about  twenty 
miles  from  Jammalamadugu.  The  railway  stations  of  Regadi- 
palle  and  Kondapuram  lie  two  miles  north  and  three  miles 
east  of  the  village  respectively.  Yetur  was  the  seat  of  one  of 
the  older  poligars  who  date  from  the  time  of  the  Vijayanagar 
Empire.  An  inscription  on  a  stone  step  in  front  of  the 
Chennakesavaswami  temple  records  that  the  poligar  Kon- 
dayya  granted  some  lands  to  the  temple  and  dug  a  channel 
from  the  Chitravati  for  their  irrigation.  The  poligar's  full 
name  was  Padigala  Konda  Reddi,  of  a  family  of  Kodide 
Kapus.  The  date  of  the  grant  is  not  given,  but  from  the 
mention  of  Gandikota  Rajas  it  must  be  assigned  to  a  period 
prior  to  the  Musalman  conquest.  In  the  l8th  century  the 
poligars  paid  peshkash  to  the  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah.  When 
the  country  was  ceded  to  the  British,  the  poligar  of  Yetur, 
though  not  very  powerful,   was  one  of  the  most   recalcitrant. 


CHAP.  XV. 

Jammala- 
madugu 
Taluk. 


VetvSr. 


196 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV 

Jammala- 

MADUGU 

Taluk, 


Muddanur. 


PRODDA- 

TUR 

Taluk. 


His  poliem  was  accordingly  forcibly  resumed  by  Munro,  and 
he  was  not  even  granted  a  pension.  The  ruined  fort  of  the 
poligars  lies  to  the  south  of  the  village  on  the  brink  of  the 
river.  The  village  contains  no  irrigation  sources  except  the 
river  channel  mentioned  above.  The  cotton  grown  here  is 
taken  by  the  ryots  themselves  to  Tadpatri  and  sold  in  the 
mills.  It  is  done  up  in  bags  weighing  fifteen  maunds  each. 
This  weight  of  cotton  is  locally  called  a  kantlam. 

The  worship  of  the  god  Narasimhaswami  by  Musalmans,  a 
curious  feature  of  this  village,  has  been  referred  to  elsewhere.' 

Muddanur,  population  1,586,  lies  about  twelve  miles  south 
of  Jammalamadugu  and  twenty-three  miles  north  of  Puli- 
vendla.  It  contains  a  police  station  and  a  branch  post  office. 
The  metalled  road  from  Kadiri  and  Pulivendla  to  Jammala- 
madugu crosses  the  railway  line  near  Muddanur  railway 
station.  The  village  has  therefore  attained  some  importance 
on  account  of  the  trade  that  passes  through  it  from  the  taluks 
of  Jammalamadugu  and  Pulivendla.  Most  of  the  groundnut 
crop  of  these  taluks  is  exported  by  way  of  Muddanur  to 
Madras  and  Pondicherry,  and  to  meet  the  increased  output 
two  husking  mills  have  recently  been  established  here. 

PRODDATUR  TALUK. 

The  taluk  of  Proddatur  occupies  a  central  position  on  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  district,  abutting  on  the  Sirvel  taluk 
of  Kurnool.  On  the  west  it  is  separated  from  Jammala- 
madugu taluk  by  an  artificial  line  terminating  at  the  Penner, 
whence  the  river  in  its  course  south-eastwards  marks  it  off 
from  the  Kamalapuram  taluk  till  within  a  few  miles  of  its 
confluence  with  the  Kunder.  In  the  latter  stream  the  three 
taluks  of  Proddatur,  Kamalapuram  and  Cuddapah  meet  at  a 
point  about  four  miles  north  of  the  confluence,  whence  the 
boundary  between  Proddatur  and  Cuddapah  follows  an 
arbitrary  line  eastwards  to  the  Nallamalais.  This  range  of 
hills  constitutes  the  eastern  boundary  of  Proddatur  taluk, 
separating  it  from  that  of  Badvel. 

The  taluk  contains  a  rich  tract  of  pure  black  cotton  soil 
which  overlaps  from  Jammalamadugu  taluk  eastwards  as  far 
as  the  road  from  Proddatur  to  the  Kurnool  frontier.  To  the 
east  and  south  of  this  the  soils  become  lighter  in  texture 
owing  to  the  action  of  the  rivers ;  but  the  transition  is  gradual, 
and  several  villages  in  the  north  of  the  taluk  commanded  by 
the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal  contain  heavy  soils  which  do 
not  respond  well  to  irrigation.     Southwards  the  soils  are  more 

^  See  Chapter  III. 


GAZETTEER  197 

friable  and  better  suited  to  tlie  cultivation  of  wet  crops.     At  CHAP.  XV. 
the  foot  of  tlie  Nallamalai  liills  they  are  red  and  often  sandy.      Prodda- 

The  canal  system,    including  the  Chapad  and   Maidukuru        tur 
projects,  supplies   this  taluk  with   the  best  irrigation  in  the      Taluk. 
district,  both  by  channels  and  channel-fed  tanks.     There  are 
also  some  river  channels  from  the  Penner. 

The  area  of  Proddatur  taluk  is  430  square  miles.  It  has 
a  population  of  96,359  and  contains  seventy-nine  villages  and 
one  town.     The  latter  is  — 

Proddatur,  population  15,756.  This,  the  taluk  head-  Proddatur. 
quarters,  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Penner  eight 
miles  from  Yerraguntla  railway  station.  It  contains  the  usual 
offices  and  is  also  the  headquarters  of  a  District  Munsif  and 
a  Sub-Registrar.  It  possesses  a  combined  post  and  tele- 
graph office,  a  police  station  and  a  local  fund  dispensary. 
There  is  a  Board  lower  secondary  school  as  well  as  the 
national  High  school  which  was  recently  acquired  by  the 
Theosophical  Society. 

Proddatur  is  certainly  the  wealthiest  town  in  the  Cudda- 
pah  district  and  possibly  in  the  Ceded  Districts.  In  its  press- 
ing and  ginning  factories  large  quantities  of  raw  cotton  are 
prepared  for  the  market  by  power-driven  machinery.  The 
trade  of  the  town,  the  bulk  of  which  is  concerned  wath  cotton, 
indigo  and  food-grains,  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  rich 
Komati  community  which  is  here  very  largely  represented. 
Evidence  of  their  prosperity  is  seen  in  their  substantial  stone- 
built  houses  and  the  jewellers'  shops  with  which  the  place 
abounds.  The  town  has  a  very  busy  bazaar  and  a  local  fund 
market  where  country  produce  is  brought  in  and  sold  every 
day.  The  Government  offices  lie  to  the  north  of  the  town, 
and  the  cluster  of  houses  near  them,  which  are  inhabited 
chiefly  by  officials  and  vakils  is  known  as  Holmespet  after 
a  former  Sub-Collector  of  that  name.  This  again  is  divided 
from  the  main  bazaar  by  the  reservoir  from  which  the  town 
gets  its  water-supply.  This  is  fed  by  a  channel  from  the 
Penner.  On  two  sides  of  it  the  Union  authorities  have 
rows  of  lifts  working  by  pulleys  to  ensure  the  water-supply 
against  contamination  ;  but  these  are  not  generally  used,  as 
the  people  prefer  to  risk  disease  and  fill  their  vessels  by 
descending  into  the  water  by  the  steps  on  the  other  sides. 
Adjoining  the  reservoir  is  a  small  park  opened  in  1903  in 
honour  of  the  coronation  of  the  King-Emperor  Edward  VII. 

Of  the  four  large  temples  in  the  town  the  only  one 
possessing  any  special  interest  is  that  of  the  goddess  Kanya- 
kamma  in  the  main   bazaar,  which   was  recently  erected  by 


198 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

Prodda- 

t'ur 
Taluk. 


Duvvur. 


the  Komati  community  at  a  cost  of  a  lakh  of  rupees.  The 
front  is  most  elaborately  carved  and  is  an  excellent  specimen 
of  modern  work.  The  carving  is  very  good  of  its  kind  and 
some  of  it  is  very  spirited.  The  god  Subramania  riding  a 
yah  in  puttees  and  boots  adds  a  touch  of  modernity.  These 
carvings  are  the  vi^ork  of  the  famous  sculptors  of  Gumpra- 
manudinne.' 

In  the  decade  ending  v^ith  the  year  1901  the  population  of 
Proddatur  more  than  doubled  itself.  Since  then  the  increase 
has  been  steady,  though  not  remarkable.  The  town  was 
constituted  a  union  in  1886.  Its  importance  and  increasing 
wealth  have  led  to  proposals  in  recent  years  to  convert  it  into 
a  municipality.  The  Komatis  have  made  it  a  very  important 
centre  of  trade  and,  though  Cuddapah  may  attract  more  of 
the  raw  products  of  this  district  on  account  of  its  railway 
station,  Proddatur  is  the  market  for  much  of  the  Kurnool  and 
Anantapur  districts,  while  the  wealth  of  the  leading  traders 
renders  possible  transactions  of  a  magnitude  unequalled  in 
this  part  of  the  Deccan. 

Some  years  ago  a  scheme  was  formulated  to  connect 
Proddatur  with  the  railway  system  by  means  of  a  branch 
line  from  Yerragudipad,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  will 
shortly  materialize. 

Duvvur,  population  2,555,  lies  ten  miles  north-east  of 
Proddatur  on  the  high  road  from  Cuddapah  to  Kurnool,  a  little 
to  the  west  of  the  Kurnool-Cuddapah  Canal.  It  contains  a 
branch  post  office,  a  police  station  and  a  good  travellers' 
bungalow  on  the  bank  of  the  canal,  once  the  residence  of  an 
Assistant  Engineer.  In  former  days  it  was  a  place  of  consi- 
derable importance.  A  gap  in  the  low  ridge  of  hills  due 
e;ist  of  the  town  afforded  facilities  for  the  construction  of  a 
fine  tank,  and  the  existence  of  several  natural  springs  gave 
that  combination  of  pure  water  and  cool  shade  which  formed 
a  suitable  retreat  for  Hindu  priests  and  saints  and  the 
favourite  site  of  their  temples.  Some  of  these  temples  are  now 
in  ruins  and  those  that  are  still  maintained  are  small  and  of  no 
architectural  merit,  but  they  are  evidently  of  ancient  origin. 
An  inscription  in  the  temple  of  Kothandaramaswami  record- 
ing a  private  gift  to  the  temple  is  dated  S.S.  1531  (A.D.  1609). 

In  the  17th  century  Duvvur  acquired  political  importance 
and  became  the  headquarters  of  one  of  the  districts  subject 
to  the  Cuddapah  Nawabs,  when  a  large  fort  was  built, 
surrounded  by  a  fine  moat  the  bed  of  which  is  now  dry  and 
converted   into   paddy   fields.     It  was   against   this  position 

1  Referred  to  above,  see  Chapter  VI. 


GAZETTEER  199 

that   Haidar   Ali    advanced  in    1779   when    he   attacked   the  CHAP.  XV, 
Cuddapah     Nawab.     The    Nawab's    Pathan    cavalry     were      Prodda- 
defeated  in  an  engag:ement  on  the  banks  of  the  Kunder  a  few  tlr 

miles  to  the  west  and  driven  into  the  town  which  they  surren-         ' 

dered  at  discretion.     A  couple  of  old  cannon   of  the  period 
may  still  be  seen  lying  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  moat. 

Even  after  the  country  was  ceded  to  the  British  Duvvur 
continued  to  be  the  headquarters  of  a  "  district  "  as  taluks 
were  then  called.  On  the  left  side  of  the  road  as  one  passes 
through  the  old  town  there  is  an  interesting  memorial  of 
Munro's  great  survey.  Two  slabs  of  stone  are  set  upright  at 
a  distance  of  II  yards  from  each  other  and  on  the  larger  is  a 
Telugu  inscription  stating  that  they  represent  the  standard 
chain  of  the  paimash.  Literally  translated  it  runs  as  follows  : 
"  The  Company  Sircar's  paimash,  fasli  I2II,  the  year 
Durmati,  a  standard  chain  ;  one  chain  equals  22  cubits,  one 
kunta  equals  4  square  chains." 

The  District  Munsif's  Court  at  Duvvur  was  abolished  in 
i860,  and  the  taluk  office  had  probably  been  transferred  to 
Proddatur  prior  to  that  date.  In  1874  the  population  of  the 
village  still  exceeded  4,000,  but  it  suffered  greatly  in  the 
famine  of  1877,  and  about  fifteen  years  ago  the  old  village- 
site  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fort  became  so  unhealthy  that  it 
was  abandoned  and  a  new  village  has  grown  up  near  the 
canal.  It  is  now  in  a  thriving  condition  and  cultivation  under 
the  canal  has  extended  rapidly  in  recent  years. 

Vanipenta,  population  4.360,  is,  after  Proddatur,  the  largest  Van=penta. 
village  in  the  taluk.  Its  importance  is  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  being  mainly  due  to  the  development  of  the 
metal-working  industry,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made.^  The  workers  are  principally  Musalmans,  but  the 
industry  is  financed  by  Komatis,  through  whose  enterprise 
the  village  has  also  become  a  trading  centre  of  some  local 
importance.  It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Nallamalais 
about  fifteen  miles  east  of  Proddatur  on  the  road  to  Poru- 
mamilla.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  a  Sub-Inspector  of  Police, 
a  Sub-Inspector  of  the  Salt  Department,  and  a  Deputy  Forest 
Ranger.  It  contains  two  elementary  Board  schools,  one  of 
which  is  reserved  for  Musalmans,  and  a  mission  school 
belonging  to  the  London  Mission.  Though  a  large  and 
important  place  Vanipenta  has  not  yet  been  constituted  a 
union.  It  is  a  straggling,  insanitary  village  with  a  stony 
soil  and  badly  laid  streets  in  which  water  stagnates  during 
the  rainy  season. 

^  See  Chapter  VI. 


200 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV, 
Prodda- 

TUR 

Taluk. 


Kamanur. 


Ramcs- 
waram. 


The  fort  at  Vanipenta  is  believed  to  have  been  built  in  the 
first  half  of  the  i6th  century  when,  as  we  learn  from  an 
inscription  on  the  wall  of  the  Chennakesavaswami  temple,  the 
village  was  granted  for  an  annual  rental  to  one  Narapanayani 
Pina  Avubala  Nayudu  during  the  reign  of  the  Vijayanagar 
Emperor  Krishnaraya.  This  inscription  is  dated  S.S.  1447, 
i.e.  A.D.  1525,  and  another  in  the  same  place  records  that  the 
tank  in  front  of  the  temple  was  built  in  the  same  year.  Part 
of  the  temple  and  its  outer  wall  are  said  to  have  been  washed 
away  by  floods  many  years  ago  when  the  tank  breached. 
The  bed  of  the  tank  is  now  held  on  patta,  and  only  a  portion 
of  the  bund  remains. 

In  the  main  street  in  the  centre  of  the  village  is  a  large 
temple  of  Kanyakamma  erected  by  the  Komati  community 
who  specially  worship  this  goddess.  It  is  of  modern  con- 
struction and  built  of  Cuddapah  slabs.  The  only  temple  to 
this  deity  in  the  taluk  exceeding  this  in  size  and  importance 
is  the  one  at  Proddatur. 

Kamanur,  population  1,742,  is  situated  about  half  way 
between  Proddatur  and  Duvvur,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Kunder.  The  village  has  benefited  in  recent  years  by  the 
Chapad  channel  which  feeds  its  tanks,  and  there  has  conse- 
quently been  a  large  increase  in  the  cultivation  of  wet  crops, 
notably  turmeric.  The  principal  dry  crops  are  cholam, 
groundnut  and  cotton,  including  the  cambodia  variety. 
Besides  the  agricultural  population  there  is  a  small  colony  of 
Sale  weavers  who  dispose  of  their  products  at  Proddatur. 

The  passage  of  the  Kunder  at  this  village  is  attended  with 
some  risk  when  in  flood.  The  stream  is  not  broad,  but  the 
banks  are  high,  the  water  rises  very  suddenly  and  the  current 
is  exceptionally  strong.  There  being  no  raft  or  ferry  the 
crossing  is  made  with  the  aid  of  swimmers  who  are  generally 
carried  two  or  three  hundred  yards  downstream  before  they 
reach  the  other  bank,  and  the  bed  of  the  stream  is  so  churned 
up  by  the  violence  of  the  torrent  that  it  is  dangerous  to  seek 
a  foothold  till  it  is  safely  crossed. 

The  temples  of  the  village  afl'ord  evidence  of  its  anti- 
quity. The  most  important  is  the  Venugopalaswami  temple, 
to  which  is  attached  a  garden  of  nearly  four  acres  for  supply- 
ing flowers  for  the  daily  worship  of  the  god.  The  annual 
festival  in  May  is  attended  by  considerable  numbers  from 
surrounding  villages. 

Rameswaram,  population  3,764,  lies  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Penner  about  a  mile  west  of  Proddatur  and  forms  part 
of  the   Proddatur  union.     It  has  long  been  a  place  of  great 


GAZETTEER 


201 


CHAP.  XV. 

Prodda- 

tDr 

Taluk. 


sanctity  and  the  story  of  its  origin  is  as  follows:  On  his 
return  from  Ceylon  Rama  received  divine  intimation  that  he 
would  be  relieved  of  the  sin  of  beheading  Ravana  if  he 
constructed  two  Siva  temples.     He  accordingly  erected  one 

at  the  famous  Rameswaram  in  the  south  and  another  here.         

When  this  temple  was  in  course  of  construction  Rama  sent 
Hanuman  to  Benares  to  get  a  lingam,  but  as  Hanuman  did 
not  return  within  the  time  fixed  for  the  prathishta  Rama 
made  a  lingam  of  sand  and  planted  it.  This  lingam  was 
afterwards  miraculously  converted  into  stone  but  it  still 
bears  the  marks  of  Rama's  fingers.  This  temple  of  Rama- 
Hngeswara  is  situated  on  the  bank  of  the  Penner.  The 
village  is  called  Rameswaram  because  the  lingam  was 
planted  by  Rama.  The  temple  is  often  visited  by  pilgrims 
from  the  north  on  their  way  to  Tirupati.  The  brahmdtsavam 
which  is  held  in  the  month  of  April  attracts  a  concourse  of 
about  ten  thousand  people.  The  temple  contains  about  half 
a  dozen  stone  inscriptions  the  earliest  of  which  records  a  gift 
of  land  and  assignment  of  revenue  to  the  temple  in  the  time  of 
the  Rashtrakuta  king  Krishna  III  who  reigned  from  A.D.  940 
to  956.  The  others  belong  to  the  time  of  the  Vijayanagar 
Empire. 

The  white  cloths  and  turbans  woven  by  the  Sales  and 
Thogatas  of  Rameswaram  are  of  superior  quality  and  are 
exported  by  the  sowcars  of  ProddatQr  to  various  parts  of 
the  country. 

Korrapad,  population  2,107,  is  situated  five  miles  north  of  Korrapad 
ProddatQr  on  the  road  that  passes  due  north  to  Chagalamarri 
in  Kurnool  district.  It  thus  has  full  opportunities  for  such 
trade  as  its  resources  allow,  and  is  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
It  is  the  first  village  benefited  by  the  Chapad  channel,  the 
water  of  which  is  carried  across  the  Nalla  vagu,  a  tributary 
of  the  Kunder,  by  an  aqueduct  close  by.  This  was  constructed 
in  1901.  Besides  affording  irrigation  to  some  low-lying  lands 
in  the  village  the  channel  provides  a  constant  supply  of  good 
drinking  water  and  is  much  appreciated  on  that  account. 
The  village  contains  a  Board  elementary  school  and  a 
London  Mission  school.  There  is  a  good  choultry  near  the 
main  road. 

The  fort  at  Korrapad  was  built  during  the  17th  century 
in  the  following  circumstances.  Early  in  the  l6th  century 
one  of  the  sirdars  of  the  Vijayanagar  Emperor  Krishnaraya 
had  been  rewarded  with  a  jagir  comprising  some  villages  of 
the  present  Kurnool  district  in  recognition  of  the  aid  he 
had  rendered  in  the  recovery  of  the  province  of  Udayagiri. 
36 


202 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 
Prodda- 

TUR 

Taluk. 


Settivari- 
palle. 


Subsequently,  after  the  country  had  come  into  the  possession  of 
the  king  of  Golconda  a  descendant  of  the  grantee  applied  for 
an  exchange  and  offered  to  pay  a  peshkash  of  ten  thousand 
kantaraya  pagodas  for  an  estate  of  equal  value  in  the  Gancli- 
kota  sima.  This  was  eventually  done  when  one  Kumara 
Sunki  Reddi  received  from  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah  an  estate 
comprising  Korrapad  and  five  other  villages  of  the  Duvvur 
district  at  the  peshkash  agreed  upon.  It  was  Kumara  Sunki 
Reddi  who  built  the  fort.  It  is  now  in  ruins,  with  but  one 
bastion  and  two  gateways  remaining,  though  it  is  still  possible 
to  distinguish  the  court-room  and  other  apartments  within  the 
structure.  This  jagir  was  resumed  by  Munro  in  l8oi  and  the 
jagirdar  granted  a  pension  which  is  still  enjoyed  by  his 
descendants. 

Evidence  of  the  antiquity  of  the  temple  of  Chenna- 
kesavaswami  at  Korrapad  is  afforded  by  a  stone  inscription 
recording  the  grant  of  lands  to  the  temple  in  S.S.  1449 
(A.D.  1527)  during  the  reign  of  the  Vijayanagar  Emperor 
Krishnaraya. 

Settivaripalle  is  situated  three  miles  south  of  Vanipenta  and 
about  the  same  distance  north  of  the  road  from  Proddatur  to 
Badvel-  It  is  one  of  the  large  villages  of  the  taluk,  with  a 
population  of  2,673,  and  contains  two  elementary  schools,  one 
of  which  belongs  to  the  London  Mission.  Tradition  says  that 
this  was  once  the  site  of  a  large  town  called  Parnapad,  traces 
of  which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  fragments  of  wrought  stone  and 
pottery  scattered  in  the  neighbourhood  and  the  foundations 
of  houses  long  ago  demolished.  A  little  to  the  west  are  the 
ruins  of  a  large  fort,  the  origin  of  which  is  not  known.  It 
contains  a  deserted  temple  of  Bukka  Chennarayadu  which 
may  indicate  that  it  was  founded  by  a  dependant  of  one  of  the 
earlier  Vijayanagar  Emperors. 

About  two  miles  east  of  the  village  is  an  outlying  spur 
of  the  Nallamalais  called  Mukkonda,  on  the  summit  of  which 
is  a  small  temple  of  Mallikarjunaswami.  Opposite  Muk- 
konda, on  the  south-west,  is  the  hillock  called  Gaggula  Tippa, 
and  the  valley  between  them  has  been  dammed  to  form  the 
Elampalle  tank.  The  temple  of  Tirumalanathaswami  occupies 
an  imposing  situation  on  a  rock  overlooking  the  tank  and  is 
approached  by  a  flight  of  about  seventy  stone  steps.  The 
entrance  is  flanked  by  figures  of  elephants  skilfully  carved  in 
stone. 

An  inscription  on  a  stone  lying  near  the  Gaggula  Tippa 
bears  the  date  S.S.  1350  (A.D.  1428),  but  its  contents  are 
unfortunately  undecipherable. 


GAZETTEER  203 

Mudircddipalle  is  a  small  village  situated  in  the  Nalla-  CHAP.  XV. 
malais  near  the  road  leading  to  Porumamilla.  It  was  formerly  Prodda- 
of  some  importance,  but  it  is  said  that  owing  to  the  prevalence  tOr 
of  malaria  the  rich  Komatis  w^ho  once  lived  here  migrated  to  Taluk. 
Vanipenta  about  eighty  years  ago.  It  deserves  mention  for 
having  been  one  of  the  fortresses  hebd  by  Vannuramma,  the  ^^[j'^"^*^'^'" 
only  woman  poligar  known  to  the  district.  From  the  stories 
which  are  still  told  of  her  she  was  evidently  a  most  vigorous 
and  capable  woman,  and  a  terror  to  the  neighbourhood.  It 
appears  that  she  was  the  wife  of  one  Kumara  Narasimha 
Nayudu  who  held  the  village  of  Tippireddipalle,  about  a  mile 
west  of  Mudircddipalle.  At  his  death  she  established  herself 
in  the  heart  of  the  Nallamalais  some  fifteen  miles  north  of 
Tippireddipalle  and  built  a  fort  and  village  called  Chakar- 
lapad.  In  this  fort  which,  but  for  two  narrow  approaches  on 
the  north  and  south,  is  completely  surrounded  by  the  hills, 
Vannuramma  generally  entrenched  herself  when  not  engaged 
in  raiding  the  country.  The  rest  of  her  time  seems  to  have 
been  spent  in  robbing  defenceless  villages  to  replenish  her 
granaries.  The  forts  at  Mudireddipalle  and  Tippireddipalle 
at  the  entrance  to  the  pass  leading  to  Chakarlapad  are  said  to 
have  been  built  by  her.  She  was  finally  reduced  by  Haidar 
Ali,  as  she  murdered  one  of  his  Amildars  who  is  said  to  have 
been  her  paramour.  Haidar  attacked  her  at  Chakarlapad, 
reduced  the  fort  and  took  her  captive.  She  was  put  to  death 
by  his  order  at  Ganjikunta.  After  her  death  the  poliem  was 
divided  between  two  brothers  of  the  family,  Kumara  Nara- 
simha Nayudu  and  Venkatadri,  of  whom  the  former  continued 
to  live  at  Tippireddipalle  and  the  latter  at  Dasaripalle  where 
he  built  a  fort.  At  Neelapuram  a  few  miles  south  of  Dasari- 
palle is  an  old  widow  lady  of  the  family.  She  is  called 
'Dorasani  Venkatamma  '  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  village 
who  are  mostly  Pdtravdtidlu,  i.e.,  descendants  of  the  poligar's 
retinue. 

Formerly  iron  smelting  was  the  principal  industry  of 
Mudireddipalle  and  other  villages  in  the  east  of  the  taluk 
under  the  Nallamalais.  It  ceased  to  be  remunerative  about 
forty  years  ago.  Abandoned  workmgs,  locally  called  inupa- 
kolumulii,  are  to  be  seen  here  and  there  along  the  foot  of  the  hills. 

Other  villages   of  this    taluk  which    deserve  mention  on   Maidukiani 
account  of  their  size,  though  otherwise  little  worthy  of  remark,  ^pd 
are    Maidukuru   (3,883)    and     Nandyalampct    (3,608).      The  [am°pe\^* 
KurnoohCuddapah  road   crosses    the   Proddatur-Badvel  road 
at   Maidukuru ;   and   Nandyalampct  lies   at  the   foot   of  the 
Nallamalais  on  the  road  to  Badvel. 


204 


CUDDAPAM 


CHAP,  XV. 
Kamala- 

PURAM 

Taluk. 


Kamala- 
puram. 


KAMALAPURAM  TALUK. 

The  taluk  of  Kamalapuram  was  constituted  in  191 1  and 
consists  of  sixty-one  villages  formerly  belonging  to  the  taluks 
of  Cuddapah,  Proddatur  and  Jammalamadugu.  It  is  the 
smallest  taluk  in  the  district  with  an  area  of  303  square  miles, 
but  in  density  of  population  is  second  only  to  Proddatur.  It 
contains  64,353  inhabitants,  a  population  practically  identical 
with  that  of  Sidhout  taluk  which  is  just  twice  as  large.  It 
occupies  a  fairly  fertile  tract  enclosed  on  the  north-east  and 
south-east  by  the  Penner  and  Papaghni  rivers  respectively, 
which  unite  near  Kamalapuram.  About  a  mile  north  of 
Vempalle  the  boundary  at  its  southernmost  corner  turns  to 
the  north-west  and  continues  in  an  irregular  line  to  the 
junction  of  the  Pulivendla  and  Jammalamadugu  taluks  on  the 
road  to  Muddanur,  whence  it  takes  a  north-easterly  direction 
crossing  the  railway  just  east  of  Muddanur  and  terminating 
at  the  Penner. 

The  soils  of  Kamalapuram  taluk  mark  the  transition  from 
the  black  cotton  tract  to  the  free  loams  that  mostly  charac- 
terize the  Cuddapah  taluk.  The  depth  of  the  black  cotton  soil 
in  the  west  of  the  taluk  is  less  than  in  the  tract  north  of  the 
Penner,  but  its  fertility  is  scarcely  inferior.  East  of  Yerra- 
guntla  the  soils  are  alluvial  and  generally  lighter  in  texture. 
The  best  of  these  are  in  the  valley  of  the  Penner;  on  the  other 
hand  in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Papaghni,  where  its  banks 
are  shallow,  the  deposits  are  often  sandy  and  consequently 
less  fertile.  The  channels  from  these  rivers  provide  the  best 
irrigation  in  the  taluk.  There  are  also  some  good  tanks  of 
which  that  at  Kamalapuram  is  one  of  the  largest  in  this  part 
of  the  district. 

Four  railway  stations  lie  within  the  limits  of  this  taluk, 
the  chief  of  which  are  Kamalapuram  and  Yerraguntla.  The 
latter  is  the  station  for  Proddatur  and  is  connected  therewith 
by  a  metalled  road.  There  are  also  two  roads  to  Yerraguntla 
from  the  south  of  the  taluk,  one  from  Vempalle  and  another 
further  west  from  Ramireddipalle  on  the  Pulivendla  frontier. 

Kamalapuram,  population  4,825,  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
taluk.  It  was  formerly  the  station  of  a  Deputy  Tahsildar  in 
charge  of  a  division  of  the  Cuddapah  taluk.  The  new  taluk 
office  is  still  under  construction.  Kamalapuram  was  consti- 
tuted a  union  in  1885.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  a  Sub- 
Assistant  Inspector  of  Schools  and  contains  a  Local  Fund 
travellers'  bungalow,  a  police  station  and  a  branch  post  office. 
A  branch  hospital  was  opened  here  by  the  London  Mission 
in  1909. 


GAZETTEER  205 

The  town   is  situated  about  a  mile  north  of  the  railway  CHAP.  XV. 
station   and  the  same  distance   west  of  the  Papaghni.     The      Kanula- 
railway  bridge  over  the  river  consists  of  twenty  openings  of       puram 
70  feet  span  each,  with  wrought  iron  plate  girders  over  screw       Taluk. 

pile  tressles.    A  pier  is  formed  of  two  tressles,  each  consisting  

of  five   wrought-iron   piles  traced  together  and  surmounted 
with  strong  casting  for  the  reception  of  the  girders. 

The  Kamalapuram  tank  lies  north  of  the  railway  line  about 
a  mile  west  of  the  station.  It  is  the  largest  in  the  taluk  and 
the  valuable  lands  which  it  irrigates  have  mainly  contributed 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  town.  Rice  is  exported  on  a  large 
scale  to  the  principal  towns  in  the  black  cotton  tract  as  far  as 
Bellary,  besides  being  purchased  by  merchants  from  Madras 
and  Salem.  Jasmine  flowers  are  grown  in  some  abundance 
and  find  a  market  in  Proddatur  and  Cuddapah. 

When  the  country  was  ceded  to  the  British  Kamalapuram 
was  made  the  headquarters  of  the  troops  which  Munro  had  to 
assist  him  to  reduce  disorderly  poligars.  In  1821  the  canton- 
ment was  removed  to  Cuddapah. 

Palagiri,  population  4,767,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  Palagiri. 
the  Mogameru,  a  tributary  of  the  Papaghni,  and  about  two 
miles  west  of  the  road  from  Vempalle  to  Yerraguntla.  It 
contains  a  post  office  and  a  Board  elementary  school.  The 
village  lies  at  a  slight  elevation  above  the  surrounding  plain 
and  possesses  no  source  of  irrigation.  It  grows  the  usual  dry 
crops  of  the  country  including  groundnut,  and  the  ryots  dis- 
pose of  their  surplus  produce  without  difficulty  at  the  weekly 
market  at  Vempalle,  about  five  miles  to  the  south.  Some  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Devangas  and  Thogatas  who  live  by 
weaving.  A  few  families  of  the  latter  caste  weave  silk 
ravikas  and  upper  cloths,  getting  the  thread  ready  coloured 
from  some  Thogata  merchants  at  Uppalur. 

In  the  north  of  the  village  is  a  ruined  fort,  the  history  of 
which  is  not  known.  It  may  have  been  an  outpost  of  one  of 
the  poligars  of  Pulivendla  taluk,  possibly  him  of  Vemula.  An 
inscription  near  the  temple  of  Chennakesavaswami  records  a 
grant  to  the  temple  in  S.S.  1426  or  A.D.  1 504  in  the  time  of  the 
Vijayanagar  Emperor  Narasimha  Deva  Raya.  A  much  older 
record  of  some  historical  value  is  the  inscription  near  the 
Bhimeswaraswami  temple  which  tells  of  its  restoration  by  a 
Vaidumba  chief  in  the  year  A.D.  1056-57  and  refers  to  a 
previous  grant  by  the  Rashtrakuta  king  Krishna  III  who  died 
in  A.D.  956 

Some  twenty  kistvaens  are  to  be  seen  scattered  about  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  this  village. 


206 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

Kamala- 

PURAM 

Taluk. 
Uppalur. 


Uppalur  is  situated  about  seven  miles  south  of  Muddanur 
and  is  enclosed  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  range  of  hills 
which  continuing  westwards  form  the  boundary  between  the 
Pulivendla  and  Jammalamadugu  taluks.  It  has  a  population 
of  l,86l  and  contains  a  Board  elementary  school.  It  is,  after 
Madhavaram  in  Sidhout  taluk,  the  most  important  silk-weaving 
centre  in  the  district.  The  weavers  are  Thogatas  and  for  the 
most  part  work  independently  though  some  are  employed  by 
capitalists  of  the  same  caste.  It  is  the  latter  who  obtain  the 
thread  from  Bangalore  and  after  colouring  it  distribute  it  to 
their  employees  or  sell  it  to  independent  workers  in  this  and  a 
few  other  villages.  The  thread  is  said  to  cost  from  Rs.  4  to  Rs.  5 
per  seer  of  twenty-six  tolas  and  after  being  coloured  is  sold  at 
a  price  ranging  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  rupees  per  seer 
higher.  Piece-work  is  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  Rs.4  for  every 
chdpii  which  consists  of  four  cloths,  each  of  two  and  a  half  yards 
length  and  weighs  from  100  to  130  tolas.  Silk  and  mixed  silk 
and  cotton  cloths  of  all  kinds  are  exported  in  large  quantities 
to  the  Nizam's  Dominions  and  parts  of  the  Bombay  Presidency 
as  well  as  the  principal  places  in  the  Ceded  Districts. 

This  village  was  once  the  seat  of  a  powerful  poligar  who 
proved  one  of  the  most  recalcitrant  when  the  country  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  British.  Our  earliest  information 
about  the  village  is  obtained  from  an  inscription  on  a  stone 
near  the  Ramalingaswami  temple  which  records  the  grant  of 
some  irrigated  lands  for  the  benefit  of  the  temples  of  the 
village  in  the  year  S.S.  1534  or  A.D.  l6l2  and  further  relates 
that  in  S.S.  1415  or  A.D.  1493  the  village  had  been  granted  as  an 
agraharam  to  certain  Brahmans  by  the  Vijayanagar  Emperor 
Narasimha  Devarayalu,  and  that  it  was  this  Brahman  commu- 
nity who  had  built  the  temples,  constructed  the  tanks  and 
finally  set  apart  some  lands  for  the  above  purpose.  The 
latter  history  of  the  village  is  gleaned  from  an  old  document 
in  possession  of  a  relative  of  the  last  poligar  as  well  as 
Munro's  brief  account  of  the  poliem.  The  prosperity  of  the 
village  is  said  to  have  declined  in  the  first  half  of  the  I/th 
century.  In  A.D.  1670  one  Patte  Khan  settled  in  the  village 
at  the  bidding  of  the  Musalman  authorities,  built  a  residence 
on  the  hill  to  the  west  of  the  village  and  constructed  a  masjid. 
After  the  downfall  of  the  Golconda  kingdom  one  Gopala 
Reddi  of  Nossam  (in  Kurnool  district)  obtained  Uppalur  and 
some  other  villages  from  the  Musalman  governor  of  Gandikota 
about  the  year  1690,  on  condition  of  paying  350  kantaraya 
pagodas  as  peshkash  and  maintaining  a  hundred  peons.  In 
1712  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah  remitted  the  service  and  fixed 


GAZETTEER  20/ 

the  peshkash  at  seven  hundred  pagodas.     In  1748  the    poligar  CHAP.  XV. 
was  expelled  and  his  poliem  resumed,  but    he  was   restored  in      Kamala- 
1766.     He  was  again  driven  out  by  Haidar  Ali  in  1779,  but  he        puram 
returned    during   the   war  in    1791    and   obtained   under  the       Taluk. 
Nizam's  weak  administration  two  additional  villages  to  which 
he  had  no  title,  and  the  peshkash  was  again  revised.     Whether 
the  poligar  paid  peshkash  to  the  British  in  the  year  1800  is 
doubtful.     His  family  document  states  that  he  did.     However 
in  February  of  the  following  year  Munro  directed  the  Amildar 
to   resume  the  two  villages   which   the   poligar  had  illegally 
appropriated.     As  the  poligar  refused  he  was  deprived  of  the 
villages  by  military  force,  and  as  he  still  declined  to  pay  his 
peshkash   for  the   remainder  of   the   poliem   which    he    was 
allowed  to  retain  this  was  also  resumed  and  he  was  seized  by 
a  detachment  of  cavalry  and  immured  in  the  fort  at  Gooty, 

Animcla  is  situated  in  the  hills  of  the  same  name  which  Animeia. 
are  little  more  than  an  isolated  spur  of  the  Palkonda  range 
extending  about  ten  miles  north  of  Vempalle  between  the 
Papaghni  and  the  road  to  Yerraguntla.  The  village  lies  a 
mile  and  a  half  west  of  the  confluence  of  the  Mogameru  and 
Papaghni  and  about  the  same  distance  east  of  the  road.  It 
has  a  population  of  3,029  and  contains  a  Board  elementary 
school.     It  is  a  weaving  centre  of  some  local  importance. 

The  village  is  chiefly  of  interest  on  account  of  its  temples, 
the  principal  of  which  is  the  temple  of  Sangameswara.  This 
is  situated  near  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  upon  the  heights 
overlooking  the  Papaghni  and  its  gopurams  are  visible  for 
many  miles.  It  has  some  remarkable  stone-carving,  the  finest 
work  being  on  the  porches  of  the  northern  and  southern  gates 
and  the  walls  of  the  inner  shrine.  The  latter  are  ornamented 
throughout  with  small  sculptured  figures  representing  various 
scenes  from  Hindu  mythology  and  surmounted  with  floral 
decorations.  The  work  is  said  to  possess  a  finish  of  delicacy 
and  character  such  as  the  best  artificers  of  these  parts  are 
unable  to  produce  at  the  present  day. 

There  are  numerous  inscriptions  in  the  village,  mostly 
belonging  to  the  Vijayanagar  period.  From  an  earlier  record 
we  learn  that  Animeia  was  included  in  the  territories  of  the 
Vaidumbas,  feudatories  of  the  Rashtrakutas,  at  the  end  of 
the  tenth  century.  A  later  inscription  records  a  grant  to  the 
Chennakesavaswami  temple  in  S.S.  1566  or  A.D.  1644  by 
Matli  Kumara  Ananta  Raja,  though  this  part  of  the  district 
could  scarcely  have  fallen  within  the  sphere  of  his  political 
influence  unless  the  earlier  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah  were  even 
weaker  than  has  been  supposed. 


208 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 
Kamala- 

PURAM 

Taluk. 

Nidujuvvi. 


Yerraguntla. 


PULI- 
VEND LA 

Taluk. 


Nidujuvvi.  population  2,122,  is  situated  on  the  Bellary  road 
thirteen  miles  west  of  Kamalapuram.  It  is  one  of  the  princi- 
pal places  for  the  quarrying  of  Cuddapah  slabs,  which  provides 
occupation  to  a  large  number  of  labourers  and  cart-men.  In 
recent  years  a  Reddi  of  the  village  had  a  remarkable  stroke 
of  luck  with  a  cow.  The  animal  had  eighteen  calves  and 
was  thus  a  continual  source  of  wealth  to  its  owner  who  grew 
quite  rich.  He  regarded  his  cow  with  such  affection  and 
respect  that  on  its  death  he  buried  it  and  constructed  a  tomb 
of  Cuddapah  slabs,  erected  a  lingam  thereon  and  enclosed 
the  burial  ground  with  a  compound  wall.  Members  of  his 
family  do  piija  at  the  cow's  tomb  every  Monday  and  on  Siva- 
ratri  day  distribute  jaggery  water  and  pdnsupdri  in  its  honour. 
He  subsequently  buried  both  his  parents  in  the  same  com- 
pound and  covered  them  with  Cuddapah  slabs  like  the  cow. 
Last  of  all  the  man  died  also,  but  whether  his  bones  lie  in  the 
same  resting  place  is  not  recorded. 

Yerraguntla.  population  1,742,  lies  ten  miles  to  the  west  of 
Kamalapuram.  It  contains  a  police  station,  branch  post 
office,  Board  elementary  school  and  a  London  Mission  school 
for  Panchamas.  Its  railway  station  has  a  double  importance 
being  the  station  for  Proddatur  as  well  as  the  depot  for  the 
export  of  Cuddapah  slabs.  Proddatur  lies  about  eight  miles 
to  the  north  across  the  Penner.  Double-bullock  carts  are  to 
be  hired  at  the  station  at  all  times  and  there  are  three  choul- 
tries close  by  with  two  large  wells  of  good  water.  Cuddapah 
slabs  are  sent  to  Yerraguntla  mainly  from  the  large  quarries 
at  Nidujuvvi  some  three  miles  distant  and  from  here  they  are 
exported  to  all  parts  of  India. 

PULIVENDLA  TALUK. 

Of  the  three  western  taluks  which  abut  on  the  district  of 
Anantapur,  Pulivendla  occupies  the  central  position,  and 
forms  roughly  a  parallelogram  running  from  north-west  to 
south-east  between  two  ranges  of  hills.  On  the  north  the 
Bhanukota  and  Mallyala  hills  divide  it  from  the  Jammala- 
madugu  taluk,  a  depression  near  the  centre  of  the  range 
giving  access  to  the  railway  by  the  ghat  road  leading  to 
Muddanur.  On  the  west  a  purely  artificial  line  divides  it 
from  the  Anantapur  district,  and  the  eastern  boundary  adjoin- 
ing the  Kamalapuram  and  Cuddapah  taluks  has  similarly 
been  determined  purely  by  administrative  convenience.  On 
the  south,  however,  separating  Pulivendla  from  the  upland 
taluk  of  Rayachoti  the  Palkonda  hills  form  an  abrupt  and 
natural  barrier  extending  from  the  Anantapur  boundary  on 


GAZETTEER  209 

the  west  to  Vempalle  on  the  east  where  the  Papaghni  enters   cHAP.  XV 
the  low  country  through  the  well-known  gorge   which  has        Puli- 
been   described  elsewhere.     Here  a  small  enclave  known  as       vendla 
the   Surabhu   valley    extends   to   the    south    of  this    natural        Taluk. 

boundary,  access  thereto  being  obtainable  only  through  the  

river-bed.  Down  the  western  flank  of  the  valley  flows  the 
Papaghni,  its  level  margins  lined  with  green  paddy  flats, 
while  outlying  spurs  of  the  Palkondas  penetrate  it  from  the 
east  and  south.  Such  attractiveness  of  scenery  as  the  taluk 
may  be  said  to  possess  entirely  disappears  to  the  north  of  the 
Palkondas  which  slope  rapidly  to  a  level  plain  of  black 
cotton  soil  extending,  with  scarcely  a  tree  to  break  the  mono- 
tony, in  an  unbroken  stretch  to  the  bare  and  unlovely  hills  on 
the  north.  Nearly  the  whole  taluk  is  drained  by  the  Papaghni 
and  its  only  tributary  of  any  importance,  the  Mogameru- 

In  point  of  population  Pulivendla  stands  third  of  the  taluks 
of  the  district,  both  in  actual  numbers  and  in  the  percentage 
of  increase  recorded  for  the  decade  ending  with  the  census  of 
1911.  It  contains  one  hundred  and  three  villages  of  which 
about  half  fall  within  the  black  cotton  tract  extending  over 
the  west  and  north  of  the  taluk  into  Anantapur  district  and 
Jammalamadugu  taluk.  Generally  speaking  the  soil  deterio- 
rates rapidly  towards  the  south  and  east,  and  is  least  fertile 
in  that  part  of  the  Surabhu  valley  which  borders  on  Rayachoti 
taluk.  More  than  47  per  cent,  of  the  dry  land  of  the  taluk  is 
assessed  at  eight  annas  an  acre  and  less.  It  contains  no  very 
good  tanks,  but  the  river  channels  from  the  Papaghni 
provide  excellent  irrigation  to  the  villages  along  its  banks. 
The  principal  of  these  is — 

Vempalle.  with  a  population  of  10,291.  This  is  the  only  Vempalle. 
town  in  the  taluk.  It  was  constituted  a  union  in  1886,  and 
contains  a  police  station,  a  local  fund  dispensary  and  a 
Board  school.  The  town  is  situated  eighteen  miles  east  of 
Pulivendla  village,  the  headquarters  of  the  taluk,  and  about 
thirty  miles  south-west  of  Cuddapah  which  is  the  station  on 
the  railway  line  most  easily  accessible.  The  wet  lands  of 
Vempalle,  which  are  unusually  extensive,  enjoy  the  best 
irrigation  that  the  taluk  affords  and  are  the  source  of  its 
prosperity.  It  exports  large  quantities  of  rice  to  the  less 
favoured  villages  of  the  taluk  as  well  as  to  Rayachoti  and 
Kadiri,  with  which  places  a  pretty  brisk  trade  is  maintained 
by  means  of  weekly  markets.  It  is  said  that  merchandise  of 
the  average  value  of  six  thousand  rupees  changes  hands  at 
the  Vempalle  market  which  is  held  every  Friday.  The 
village  of  Alireddipalle  which  is  situated  on  the  right  bank 
?7 


210 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV 

PULI- 

VENDLA 

Taluk. 


Pulivendla. 


of  the  Papaghni  opposite  to  Vempalle  once  formed  part  of  it. 
In  this  village  there  is  a  temple  to  Vrishabhachaleswaraswami, 
conspicuously  situated  on  a  hill,  visible  from  some  distance 
on  the  Vempalle  side  of  the  river.  The  curious  name  of  the 
god  is  accounted  for  by  a  myth  which  relates  that  a  Rakshasa 
named  Vrishabhasurudu  once  inhabited  the  neighbourhood 
and  caused  general  unpleasantness  until  he  was  vanquished 
by  Vishnu  after  a  seven  days'  contest.  The  scene  of  the 
Rakshasa's  defeat  is  the  hillock  and  the  temple  was  built 
thereon  in  honour  of  Vishnu's  victory.  The  hrahmotsavam 
takes  place  in  the  month  of  Vaisakham  and  lasts  for  nine  days. 
It  used  to  be  conducted  with  great  splendour,  but,  owing,  it  is 
said,  to  dissensions  between  the  Komatis  and  Kapus,  such 
is  not  now  the  case.  The  Kapus  claim  to  be  garlanded  at 
the  time  of  the  festival,  and  the  Komatis  have  in  recent  years 
objected, — a  point  of  some  interest  in  that  it  affords  evidence 
of  the  increasing  importance  of  the  trading  community  and 
its  claim  to  equal  consideration  with  the  cultivating  class. 

There  are  several  other  temples  of  less  importance,  and 
two  mosques.  The  Musalman  element  in  Vempalle  consti- 
tutes nearly  twenty  per  cent,  of  its  population,  which  is  a 
higher  proportion  than  is  found  anywhere  else  in  Pulivendla 
or  Jammalamadugu  taluk. 

Pulivendla,  the  headquarters  of  the  taluk,  is  situated  on  the 
road  from  Kadiri   to   Muddanur,   being   twenty-seven  miles 
north  of  Kadiri  and  twenty-three  miles  south  of  Muddanur 
railway    station.     It   is    a   union   and  contains,    besides   the 
taluk  office,  a  police  station,  a  Sub-Registrar's  office  and  a 
local   fund    dispensary.     There    is    no   telegraph    office.     A 
travellers'   bungalow   has   been    recently    constructed.     The 
name  Pulivendla  is  said  to  denote  the  '  the  haunt  or  abode  of 
tigers,'  and  may  have  been   appropriate  to  the  place  some 
hundreds  of  years  ago;  but  it  is  certain  that  there  are  no 
tigers  nowadays  in  the  Palkonda  hills  to  the  south  of  the 
village  nor  indeed  in  any  portion  of  the  taluk.     The  Puli- 
vendla vanka,  a  tributary  of  the  Mogameru,  flows  through 
the  village,  and  a  number  of  spring  channels  rising  in  its 
vicinity  provide  good  irrigation  to  the  low-lying  fields  border- 
ing the   village  on  the  north   and  east,   where   betel-vines, 
plantains  and  other  fruits,  as  well  as  flowers,   are  grown  in 
some  profusion.     The  Local  Fund  market  at  Pulivendla  is 
the   largest   of   its   kind   in    the  district.     It    is    held    every 
Thursday  in  an  extensive  and  commodious  walled  compound 
and    attracts    a    great    deal    of    business.      Traders    from 
Anantapur  and  Bellary  districts  frequent  it,  and  it  forms  ^ 


GAZETTEER  211 

convenient  link  between  the  plateau  taluks  and  the  main  line  CHAP.  XV 
of   railway   at   Muddanur  or   Kondapuram.     More   than   ten        Puli- 
thousand  rupees  worth  of  merchandise  is  said  to  be   brought       vendla 
to  the  market  every  week,  mostly   in   the  shape  of  various       Taluk. 
grains  and  country  cotton  goods. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  this  village  that  its  principal  temple 
is  situated  a  mile  away  to  the  west  in  the  midst  of  the  fields. 
In  spite  of  this,  daily  worship  is  conducted,  and  some  thou- 
sands of  people  attend  its  two  principal  festivals,  at  one  of 
which,  the  Pavithrotsavam,  which  lasts  three  days,  a  colon- 
nade of  bamboos  decorated  with  flowers  is  erected  from  the 
mida  vigraham  to  the  gateway  of  the  temple. 

There  is  a  ruined  fort  on  a  small  hill  above  the  village,  a 
reminiscence  of  the  political  ascendancy  of  the  poligars, 
which  is  specially  characteristic  of  this  part  of  the  district. 
Pulivendla  was  subject  to  the  poligars  of  Vemula, 

Parnapallc  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Chitravati  Parnapalle. 
where  a  narrow  strip  of  the  Pulivendla  taluk  juts  out  like  a 
wedge  into  the  Anantapur  district  near  the  junction  of  the 
three  taluks  of  Kadiri,  Dharmavaram  and  Tadpatri.  About 
a  mile  south  of  the  village  the  Palkonda  range  of  hills  which 
stretch  from  the  boundary  of  Sidhout  taluk  westwards  across 
the  middle  of  the  district  terminates  and  throws  out  irregular 
spurs  as  far  as  the  river  bank,  which  lend  a  wild  and  pic- 
turesque appearance  to  the  village.  A  metalled  road  provides 
direct  communication  with  Pulivendla  about  twenty  miles 
to  the  south-east.  The  nearest  railway  station  is  Chinnaya- 
kuntapalle  at  a  distance  of  seven  miles,  on  the  Dharmavaram- 
Pakala  branch  line  of  the  Madras  and  Southern  Mahratta 
Railway.  The  village  has  a  population  of  1,614  and  contains 
a  Board  school  and  a  branch  post  office. 

The  position  of  the  village  is  rather  precarious  owing  to 
the  possible  occurrence  of  floods  in  the  Chitravati.  A  faded 
inscription  on  a  rock  near  the  river  bank  about  half  a  mile 
south  of  the  village,  the  date  of  which  appears  to  be  S.S.  1318 
(A.D.  1396)  records — if  its  contents  have  been  correctly 
deciphered — that  a  village  called  Chlkatipalle  was  washed 
away  by  floods  and  an  irrigation  channel  destroyed.  Parna- 
palle itself  was  partially  destroyed  by  the  floods  in  1851,  and 
many  lives  were  lost  owing  to  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
river  rose  and  burst  its  banks. 

About  two  hundred  acres  of  land  are  irrigated  by  river 
channels  from  the  Chitravati.  Rice  is  exported  principally  to 
Pulivendla,  Simhadripuram  and  Dharmavaram.  The  hills 
adjoining  the  road  about  half  a  mile  from  the  village  have 


2li 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

PULI- 
VENDLA 

Taluk. 


recently  been  quarried  for  steatite  by  the  Indian  Steatite 
Company,  London.  The  enterprise  was  presumably  found 
unremunerative,  as  operations  were  discontinued  towards  the 
end  of  1912.  Other  metals  in  the  neighbourhood  which  have 
a  saleable  value  are  gandhapu  rdllu  of  a  superior  sort,  and 
paUigii  rdllu.  The  former  stone  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
sandalwood  paste  and  is  exported  to  various  parts  of  the  Ceded 
Districts  as  well  as  to  Mysore  and  Nellore.  Palugii  rdllu  are 
ground  into  powder  and  mixed  with  salt  earth  in  the  manu- 
facture of  common  black  bangles.  These  are  chiefly  made 
by  Musalmans  in  Parnapalle  who  work  for  cooly  for  Gajula 
Balijas.  They  are  paid  between  one  and  two  annas  for  every 
thousand  bangles. 

The  ruined  fort  west  of  the  village  is  still  inhabited  by  the 
descendants  of  the  poligar — Koneti  Nayudu — who  is  said  to 
have  built  it ;  but  they  are  unable  to  give  any  account  of  their 
ancestors.  Close  to  the  fort  is  a  temple  of  Chennakesavaswami, 
long  deserted  but  not  yet  fallen  into  ruin.  It  appears  that  the 
image  of  the  god  was  removed  from  the  temple  and  lost  many 
years  ago.  The  story  runs  that  the  god  appeared  in  a  dream 
to  the  Tahsildar  of  Tadpatri  about  thirty  years  ago  and 
ordered  him  to  recover  the  image  and  convey  it  to  Anantapur. 
The  image  was  accordingly  found  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  cast 
there  presumably  by  Musalmans  in  earlier  times,  and  the 
Tahsildar  took  it  away  to  Anantapur  where  he  established  it 
and  built  a  temple  over  it  in  honour  of  the  god. 

The  village  appears  to  have  been  visited  by  Tipu  Sultan 
on  more  than  one  occasion.  The  construction  of  the  Jumma 
Masjid  and  another  mosque  on  the  site  of  a  ruined  Hindu 
temple  is  attributed  to  him.  Near  the  latter  is  a  tomb  in 
honour  of  one  Miskin  Vali,  a  saint,  who,  having  returned  from 
Mecca,  halted  a  night  at  the  mosque  on  his  way  from  Tadmarri 
and  died  there.  Tipu  established  a  weekly  fair  on  the  hill 
where  the  mosque  is,  and  had  pukka  buildings  constructed  for 
the  use  of  the  merchants,  devoting  the  market  fees  to  the 
upkeep  of  the  valVs  tomb.  With  the  fall  of  Tipu  the  enter- 
prise languished  ;  but  the  market  buildings  still  exist,  though 
roofless,  to  lend  colour  to  the  story. 

About  a  mile  from  the  village  are  some  perennial  springs  and 
a  natural  cave,  the  depth  of  which  has  never  been  explored. 
It  is  of  course  the  abode  of  rishis  who  may  not  be  disturbed. 
The  Koneru  fed  by  the  springs  is  of  special  sanctity  and  attracts 
pilgrims  in  the  month  of  Kartigai  for  ceremonial  bathing.  Like 
other  places  situated  amidst  wild  and  picturesque  scenery, 
Parnapalle  abounds  in  legends  of  a  semi-sacred  character. 


GAZETTEER 


ii3 


Vcmula.  population  1,744,  is  situated  about  nine  miles  south- 
east of  Pulivendla  on   the  road  to  Vempalle.     It  contains  a 
police  station,  a  Board  school  and  a   branch  post  office.     It  is 
invested  with  some   historical  interest  as  having  been  the  seat 
of  a  powerful  family  of  poligars  who  called  themselves  Ekili 
Rajas  and  were,  in  Munro's  words,  "  the  most   remarkable  for 
their    turbulence    and    depredations    of    any   in    the   Ceded 
Districts."     The  earliest  of  the  family  of  whom  anything  is 
known  is  Basavappa  Nayudu  who  maintained  a  force  of  six 
hundred   men    for  military    service    under    the    Vijayanagar 
Emperor,  and  received  for  their  payment  the  village  of  Vemula 
and  twenty-five  others,  the  subsequent  kamil  assessment  of 
which  amounted  to  9,796  kantaraya  pagodas.     The  peshkash 
varied  under  the  Muhammadan   governments  and  the  force 
was  reduced  to  five  hundred  men,  till  in  1712  the  Nawab  of 
Cuddapah  remitted  the  service  and  fixed  the  peshkash  at  3,500 
pagodas.     Forty  years  afterwards  the  poligar  rebelled   and 
was  made  prisoner  by  the  Nawab  who  blew  him  from  the 
mouth  of  a  gun,  circumcised  his  son  and  resumed  the  poliem. 
In   1756  Vemula   fell    into  the  hands  of  the   Mahrattas  who 
restored  the  late  poligar's  son  for  an  increased  peshkash.    The 
Mahrattas  were  not  long  in  possession  of  the  country,  and  as 
the   poligar  failed  to  pay  regularly  he  was   expelled  by  Mir 
Sahib,  the  Governor  of  Gurramkonda,  in  1766,  and  subsequently 
died  in  exile.     In  1791  when  the  district  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Nizam,   Basavappa  Nayudu,  a  distant   relative  of  the  late 
poligar,  got  possession  of  the  poliem  but  was  driven  out  the 
following    year.     He    returned    in    1794    and    took    forcible 
possession  of  Vemula,  defying  the  central  authority.     He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Kumara  Nayudu  in  1796  who  died  without 
issue.     A  distant  relative  of  the  family,  a  blind  and  imbecile 
old  man,  was  set  up  as  a  puppet   by  subordinate  officials. 
When  Munro  summoned  him  with  the  intention  of  giving  him 
a  pension  and  resuming  the  poliem  he  was  prevented  from 
appearing.     After  four  months'  waiting  without  result,  Munro 
requisitioned  the  military  authority.     The  fort  of  MTdipentla,  a 
few  miles  south  of  Vemula,  where  the  poligar  was  lodged,  was 
surprised  and  captured.     The  poligar  was  made  prisoner,  and 
died  at  Gooty. 

The  ruins  of  the  Vemula  fort  are  still  visible.  Its  position 
is  strategically  good,  backed  by  the  Palkondas  and  flanked 
by  isolated  hills.  The  village  is  of  no  particular  importance 
nowadays,  though,  judging  from  its  population,  which  has 
increased  by  thirty  per  cent,  in  the  last  thirty  years,  it  is  in  a 
thriving  condition. 


CHAP.  XV. 

Puli- 
vendla 
Taluk. 

Vemula. 


214 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

PULI- 
VENDLA 

Taluk. 

Chilekam- 
palle. 


Balapanur. 


Chilekampallc  is  a  village  in  the  east  of  the  Surabhu  valley, 
situated  about  a  mile  south  of  the  Palkonda  hill  range.  It  is 
about  ten  miles  from  Vempalle,  and  Cuddapah,  at  a  distance 
of  thirty  miles,  is  the  nearest  railway  station.  Like  other 
villages  in  the  east  and  south  of  this  enclave  it  partakes  more 
of  the  characteristics  of  Rayachoti  taluk  than  of  that  to  which 
it  belongs.  It  consists  of  a  very  small  "  casba  "  and  numerous 
hamlets,  the  population  of  which  amounts  in  the  aggregate 
to  2,095.  The  dry  lands  of  the  village  are  extensive  but 
poor  in  quality,  mostly  grown  with  castors,  dhall,  red-gram 
and  horse-gram  which  the  ryots  exchange  in  the  Vempalle 
market  for  such  requisites  as  salt,  kerosene-oil,  chillies  and 
tobacco.  There  is  one  fairly  large  tank  in  the  village,  the 
name  of  which,  Chekrayya  cheruvu,  suggests  some  connection 
with  the  neighbouring  village  of  Chekrayapet.  On  the  tank- 
bund  is  a  ruined  temple  with  a  broken  inscription.  The 
temple  is  dedicated  to  Chekrayya,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
constructed  the  tank. 

Every  five  or  six  years  a  big  dvula  panipu}  takes  place 
in  this  village,  which  is  attended  by  several  thousands  of 
people  from  the  adjoining  taluks.  About  a  dozen  cows  and 
three  bulls  are  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  this  worship  and 
are  maintained  by  the  pujari  who  holds  inam  lands  to  the 
extent  of  more  than  twenty-live  acres  for  the  support  of  the 
cattle  and  the  regular  performance  of  the  festival.  This 
begins  on  the  Sunday  preceding  the  full  moon  of  Vaisakham. 
The  date  is  intimated  by  the  villagers  a  week  in  advance  by 
sending  to  every  supporter  of  the  festival  a  four-anna  piece 
tied  in  a  saffron  cloth.  They  make  the  fact  known  and  on  the 
following  Sunday  they  attend  with  their  cattle  and  little  silver 
umbrellas,  bringing  a  large  concourse  of  people.  In  the 
afternoon  the  worshippers  with  their  cattle  and  silver  umbrellas 
make  a  procession  three  times  round  the  stand  where  the  sacred 
cattle  are  placed,  and  then  depart.  The  villagers  give  a  meal 
to  every  one  who  produces  the  four-anna  piece  in  a  saffron 
cloth  which  was  sent  by  way  of  invitation.  The  festival  costs 
about  Rs.  400  or  Rs.  500  which  is  contributed  by  the  ryots  of 
this  and  adjoining  villages. 

Balapanur  is  a  large  village  of  over  four  thousand 
inhabitants,  situated  on  the  road  to  Kondapuram  about  eight 
miles  north-west  of  Pulivendla.  It  marks  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  great  black  cotton  plain  which  stretches 
north  and  west  from  here  towards  Jammalamadugu  and 
Tadpatri.     It  is  the  headquarters  of  a  Police  Inspector  and  of 

^  Cow-worship. 


GAZETTEER  215 

a  firka  revenue   inspector.     In  the  Board  elementary  school  CHAP.  XV 
of  this  village  more  than  a  hundred  boys  are  under  instruction.         „  .' 
The   London   Mission  also    has   an    institution    here   for  the       vendla 
primary  education  of  Mala  converts.     It   is  said  that  this  vil-       Taluk. 

lage  was  a  Brahman  agrahdram  in  the  time  of  the  Vijayanagar         

Emperors  but  was  resumed  by  the  Cuddapah  Nawabs  who  set 
apart  certain  inam  lands  for  the  Brahmans.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  l8th  century  it  was  included  in  the  poliem  of  Tondur  and 
protected  by  the  poligar  with  the  usual  fort  and  watchtower. 
The  latter  as  well  as  the  gateway  of  the  fort  are  still  standing. 

In  a  taluk  practically  devoid  of  good  tanks,  the  Vura  kunta 
of  Balapanur  deserves  mention.  It  provides  irrigation  to  its 
ayacut  for  over  six  months  in  a  good  year  and  furnishes  the 
principal  drinking  water-supply  of  the  village.  The  water  is 
said  to  be  unusually  palatable  and  the  situation  of  the  tank 
by  the  road  side  is  a  boon  to  thirsty  travellers. 

An  appreciable  proportion  of  the  population  of  the  village 
is  employed  otherwise  than  in  agriculture.  Weaving  provides 
occupation  to  considerable  numbers.  Some  Voddes  and 
Yerukulas  have  also  settled  in  the  village.  The  former  are 
masons  and  the  latter  make  bamboo  tatties  and  baskets  which 
they  sell  principally  at  Pulivendla  market. 

Ycrraballa.  population  2,396,  is  situated  about  five  miles  Verrabaila. 
south-west  of  Pulivendla.  The  Palkonda  hills  form  its 
southern  boundary.  The  big  tank  of  Yerraballa  affords  an 
example  of  the  disappointing  nature  of  tank  irrigation  in 
Pulivendla  taluk.  In  the  scheme  report  for  the  resettlement 
of  the  taluk  it  is  referred  to  as  follows  :  "  The  Yerraballa 
tank  occupies  a  fine  natural  position  in  the  hills  to  the  south 
of  Pulivendla  and  when  it  receives  a  good  supply  all  the 
spring  channels  lower  down  have  a  copious  flow.  Its  history 
of  late  years  is,  however,  one  of  short  supplies  and  large 
remissions  .  .  .  Another  feature  of  the  tanks  of  this 
taluk  is  the  great  percolation  through  and  beneath  the  bunds 
owing  to  the  porousness  of  the  soil  and  the  lie  of  the  stratas 
underneath.  So  marked  is  this  that  for  several  tanks  such  as 
Yerraballa  and  Vemula  no  sluice  is  provided  at  all,  the  water 
escaping  by  percolation  into  the  main  supply  channel." 

The  waterfall  near  Yerraballa,  called  Panchalingdlakdnch  is 
worth  a  visit.  It  is  situated  in  that  part  of  the  Palkonda  hills 
known  as  the  Dorigallu  reserve  from  the  village  of  that  name 
in  the  adjacent  taluk  of  Kadiri.  The  water  descends  the 
face  of  a  rock  in  a  depression  between  two  hills  and  falls  into 
a  gundam  or  reservoir  whence  it  is  carried  away  by  the  hill 
stream  known  as  Lingala  vanka.     The  waterfall  is  named 


2l6 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV.  Panchalingala  from  the  sacred  cave  near  by  which  conta 


PULI- 
VENDLA 

Taluk. 


Siinhadri- 
puram. 


Peddaku- 
dala. 


ins 
five  lingams.  The  cave  is  approached  by  a  winding  passage 
the  entrance  to  which  is  marked  by  a  temple  gateway.  The 
passage  is  little  more  than  a  fissure  in  the  rock,  overhung  by 
beetling  crags,  and  at  one  place  is  so  contracted  that  a  man 
must  crawl  to  get  through  it.  On  Mondays  in  the  month  of 
Kartigai  the  place  is  visited  by  numerous  devotees.  The 
temple  of  Gundala  Mallikarjunaswami  in  this  neighbourhood 
is  also  situated  opposite  a  picturesque  waterfall  and  attracts 
visitors  at  the  same  time  of  the  year.  The  forest  abounds  in 
panthers  and  wild  pig. 

Simhadripuram  is  a  small  village  with  a  population  of  less 
than  a  thousand  situated  about  sixteen  miles  north-west  of 
Pulivendla.  Though  so  small  it  contains  about  a  hundred 
hand-looms.  The  weavers  are  mostly  Thogatas.  The  village 
deserves  notice  on  account  of  its  sheep-market.  Some  four 
or  five  thousand  sheep  and  goats  are  driven  in  to  the  weekly 
fair  every  Sunday,  which  is  well  patronized  by  farmers  from 
all  parts  of  the  black  cotton  taluks. 

A  branch  hospital  was  opened  in  this  village  by  the 
London  Mission  in  1910. 

Pcddakudala,  population  2,313,  lies  about  six  miles  north- 
west of  Pulivendla  on  the  road  to  Parnapalle.  It  occupies  a 
depression  surrounded  by  hillocks  with  channels  on  two  sides 
which  unite  in  the  vanka  passing  on  the  east.  The  water  is 
so  near  the  surface  in  this  depression  that  the  channels  never 
dry  up  except  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  hot  weather.  This 
prevailing  dampness  and  the  practice  of  heaping  the  refuse 
of  the  village  near  the  channels  render  the  place  very  insani- 
tary. The  wells  of  the  village  are  impregnated  with  guinea- 
worm,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  feverish  places  in  the  taluk. 
The  Kodide  Kapus  of  this  village  are  bitterly  quarrelsome  and 
have  earned  the  unenviable  reputation  of  being  addicted  to 
all  manner  of  crime.  In  the  l8th  century  when  nearly  all  the 
villages  in  the  south  of  Pulivendla  taluk  were  in  the  hands  of 
poligars  Peddakudala  seems  to  have  retained  its  independ- 
ence. In  place  of  the  usual  exterior  fort  and  watchtower  it 
contains  a  circular  stronghold  in  the  middle  of  the  village.  It 
is  said  that  the  villagers  assigned  some  land  to  the  kdvaligar  ^ 

^  Munro  in  a  letter  to  the  Board,  dated  20th  March  1802,  says  :  "  Had 
the  poligars  been  always  confined  to  the  charge  of  their  own  districts,  their 
existence  would  not  have  proved  so  ruinous  as  it  has  been  to  the  country  ; 
but  it  was  the  constituting  them  as  Kavallgars  or  protectors  of  the  property  of 
the  inhabitants  and  of  travellers,  not  only  in  their  own,  but  in  the  adjacent 
districts,  that  rendered  them  rebels  during  war,  and  robbers  and  murderers 
during  peace." 


GAZETTEER  21/ 

of  Lopatanutla  in  consideration  of  his  sending  men  to  their  CHAP.  XV. 
assistance  in  times  of  danger.  Puli- 

Marellamadaka  is  a  little  village  situated  at  the  entrance  of  vendla 
the  gorge  through  which  the  Papaghni  pierces  the  Palkonda  Taluk. 
hills.  On  the  face  of  the  rocky_  hill  overlooking  the  river  on  MareUaT 
the  right  bank  is  a  temple  to  Anjaneya,  to  the  antiquity  of  madaka. 
which  the  following  legend  gives  colour.  Vayu,  the  father  of 
Anjaneya,  dwelt  here  in  religious  contemplation  at  the  time 
of  Rama's  expedition  to  Ceylon.  Rama  himself  had  also 
sojourned  here  during  his  exile  and,  on  his  triumphant  return 
from  Ceylon  with  his  wife  Sita  after  having  defeated  and 
slain  Ravana,  Vayu  prepared  to  welcome  him  and  flung  a 
wreath  of  golden  flowers  across  the  ravine  through  which  the 
conqueror  should  pass  on  his  way  northwards  to  Ayodhya. 
At  the  earnest  request  of  Vayu,  Rama  halted  here  for  a  day 
with  his  troops  and  before  leaving  he  impressed  the  mark  of 
his  bow  on  a  rock,  whereon  the  figure  of  Anjaneya  was  sub- 
sequently fashioned  by  the  sage  Vyasa.  On  this  spot  the 
temple  was  erected.  There  is  some  beauty  in  the  popular 
superstition  that  a  vision  of  the  golden  flowers  is  still  vouch- 
safed at  the  approach  of  death  to  such  as  have  found  favour 
with  the  gods.  It  is  said  that  Sir  Thomas  Munro  saw  the 
wreath  as  he  passed  through  the  gorge  on  his  last  journey 
and  drew  attention  to  it ;  whereat  his  followers  were  grieved, 
for  they  knew  he  would  shortly  die. 

RAYACHOTI  TALUK. 

Rayachoti,  the  most  extensive  taluk  in  the  district,  occu-  rXyachoti 
pies  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  broad  upland  generally  Taluk. 
known  as  the  Mysore  plateau.  It  lies  at  a  considerably 
higher  elevation  than  the  rest  of  the  district  and  rises  gradu- 
ally towards  the  south  to  an  altitude  of  some  1,900  feet  above 
sea  level.  It  is  separated  from  the  low-lying  taluks  on  the 
north  and  east  by  the  great  hill  ranges  of  the  Palkondas 
and  Seshachalams.  Its  other  boundaries  are  irregular  and 
correspond  to  no  natural  features.  Westwards  it  faces  the 
Kadiri  taluk  of  Anantapur  district  while  the  taluks  of  Madana- 
palle  and  Vayalpad  of  Chittoor  district  enclose  it  on  the  south. 
It  has  an  area  of  997  square  miles  and  a  population  of  113,982, 
the  density  being  1 14  to  the  square  mile  as  against  the 
district  average  of  153.  Only  one  taluk,  Sidhout,  is  more 
sparsely  populated.  The  rivers  of  the  taluk  are  the  Pincha, 
Bahuda,  Mandavya  and  Papaghni.  The  two  first-named  enter 
the  taluk  from  that  of  Vayalpad  in  the  south-east  and  unite  at 
28 


21 8 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV.  Rayavaram  below  the  Seshachalams  whence,  under  the  name 

Rayachoti    of  the  Cheyyer,  the  river  flows  through  a  winding  gorge  in  the 

Taluk.       hills  till  it  emerges  into  the  low  country   in  the   north  of 

Pullampet  taluk.     The  Mandavya  river,  fed  by  numerous  hill 

streams  in  the  south-west  of  the  taluk,  first  attains  importance 
as  it  approaches  Rayachoti  whence  it  takes  a  north-easterly 
course  and  after  entering  an  enclave  in  the  Seshachalams, 
turns  south  some  three  miles  below  Gadikota  and  finally  joins 
the  Cheyyer  in  the  heart  of  the  hills  about  three  miles  north 
of  the  road  to  Rajampet.  The  Papaghni  in  the  extreme  west 
flows  in  a  rocky  bed  through  hilly  country  northwards  to  the 
Surabhu  valley  and  is  of  no  value  to  the  taluk  as  a  factor 
in  irrigation. 

There  is  no  railway  in  the  taluk,  and  the  country  is  so 
rocky  and  uneven  as  to  make  travelling  by  cart  very  un- 
comfortable except  along  the  main  roads.  The  chief  of  these 
are  the  Chittoor-Kurnool  road  and  the  Kadiri-Rajampet  road 
which  meet  at  Rayachoti  and  cross  at  right  angles.  The 
former  is  joined  a  mile  south  of  Rayachoti  by  the  road  from 
Madanapalle  through  Gurramkonda,  and  a  little  north  of  the 
town  by  the  road  from  Vempalle.  Of  other  roads,  which  are 
little  better  than  cart-tracks,  may  be  mentioned  those 
connecting  Rayachoti  with  Viraballi  and  Tsundupalle  on  the 
east,  and  in  the  west  of  the  taluk  the  road  from  Galivadu 
northwards  through  Nulivedu  joining  the  Vempalle  road  at 
Konampet,  and  the  road  passing  south  through  Aravedu  into 
the  Madanapalle  taluk. 

There  are  numerous  tanks  in  the  taluk,  but  they  are  mostly 
too  small  to  afford  sufficient  irrigation  for  wet  crops ;  hence 
the  number  of  wells  in  wet  ayacuts  is  unusually  large.  Some 
half  a  dozen  villages  in  the  south-east  of  the  taluk  have  the 
advantage  of  good  channel  irrigation  from  the  Bahuda  river. 
Except  in  this  corner  of  the  taluk  soils  are  poor  and  irrigation 
is  generally  precarious. 

The  following   is  an  account  of  some   of   the   places   of 
interest  or  importance  in  the  taluk  : — 
Rayachoti.  Rayachoti   is  the  headquarters    of  the  taluk.      From  old 

inscriptions  it  is  clear  that  the  original  name  was  Raja-vTdu 
or  the  "  king's  dwelling-place;  "  but  the  early  history  of  the 
village  is  obscure  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  to  what  dynasty 
the  king  or  chief  who  settled  here  belonged.  Rayachoti  has 
a  population  of  8,012,  is  a  union  and  contains,  besides  a 
travellers'  bungalow,  all  the  offices  usual  to  a  taluk  head- 
quarters. There  is  no  telegraph.  The  nearest  railway  station 
is  Kalikiri  on  the    Pakala-Dharmavaram    line   twenty-eight 


GAZETTEER 


219 


miles  to  the  south.  The  distance  to  Cuddapah  on  the  north  is  CHAP.  XV. 
thirty-three  miles,  and  Rajampet  and  Kadiri  lie  some  thirty-  Rayach5ti 
five   miles    east   and   west   respectively.     Rayachoti    is  thus        Taluk. 

situated  in  the  very  centre  of  the  taluk.     Eight  roads  converge  

on  the  town  and  most  of  the  surplus  produce  of  the  taluk 
finds  its  way  to  the  weekly  market  which  is  held  here  every 
Sunday.  Trade,  which  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  Balijas,  is 
chiefly  carried  on  with  Cuddapah,  Rajampet  and  Vempalle. 
Superior  cloths  are  woven  and  embroidered  by  weavers  of  the 
Sale  caste  and  sold  locally.  The  town  has  no  other  industry 
of  any  importance. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  Lingayats  at  Rayachoti 
and  an  important  temple  of  Virabhadraswami.  It  contains 
some  old  inscriptions  recording  grants  to  the  temple  by  local 
chiefs  at  various  periods.  Some  curious  practices  are  observed 
in  connection  with  the  worship  of  this  god.  Early  in  the 
morning  of  the  day  of  the  car  festival  a  big  ruby  of  the  size 
of  a  nutmeg  is  placed  between  the  two  eyebrows  of  the  god  to 
represent  the  third  eye  of  Siva.  In  front  of  the  idol  is  placed 
a  large  heap  of  boiled  rice  so  as  to  catch  the  first  glance  of 
the  ruby  eye  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  Till  this  is  done  the 
doors  are  shut  and  the  people  are  prevented  from  entering 
lest  they  should  be  instantly  killed  by  the  fierce  rays  from 
the  eye  of  Siva.  The  person  who  conducts  the  ceremony 
stands  behind  the  idol,  out  of  the  range  of  the  eye,,  and 
remains  there  till  the  rite  is  over.  At  another  time  of  the 
year  the  god  is  taken  out  hunting.  He  is  carried  to  a  small 
mantapam  half  a  mile  from  the  town,  and  there  placed  on  the 
ground.  The  place  is  said  to  be  full  of  scorpions,  but  while 
the  god  takes  his  rest  there  his  attendants  can  catch  the 
scorpions  and  hold  them  without  being  stung  though  at  other 
times  they  are  as  venomous  as  the  rest  of  their  tribe. 

In  old  Rayachoti  near  the  river  to  the  west  of  the  town  is 
a  stone  very  conspicuously  set  up,  with  a  Tamil  inscription 
dated  S.S.  I155  which  corresponds  to  A.D.  1233.  It  records  a 
grant  to  a  temple  by  a  certain  king,  but  none  of  the  names 
given  can  be  identified  with  any  place  in  the  vicinity.  The 
king  is  called  Nissankapratapa  Raya,  lord  of  Karkatapura. 
Another  inscription  of  the  same  date  at  Abbavaram,  a  village 
included  in  the  Rayachoti  Union,  mentions  the  name  of 
another  king,  Thomba,  who  was  'first  ruling  from  Kalu- 
katayapuram  and  then  Marujavaduyandapuram  his  capital.' 
It  is  probable  that  Karkatapura  and  Kalukatayapuram  refer 
to  the  same  place  and  it  is  possible  that  Thomba  who  '  was 
first  ruling  '  there  was  expelled  therefrom  by  Nissankapratapa 


220 


CUDDAPAH 


Tsundupalle. 


CHAP.  XV.  who  calls  himself  'lord  of  Karkatapura.'     It  is  not  known  to 
Rayachoti    what  dynasties  these  kings  or  chiefs  belonged. 
Taluk.  Tsundupalle,  population  3,538,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank 

of  the  Bahuda  river,  twelve  miles  south-east  of  Rayachoti.     It 

contains  a  police  station,  a  branch  post  office  and  a  Board 
elementary  school.  The  arable  lands  of  the  village  extend 
some  miles  to  the  west  of  the  river  and  some  are  watered  by 
fairly  good  tanks,  but  the  most  valuable  irrigated  lands  are 
those  under  the  river  channels,  the  ayacuts  of  which  are  very 
extensive. 

There  is  a  weekly  market  every  Monday,  which  is  held 
in  a  compound  specially  constructed  by  the  Local  Board.  It  is 
the  most  important  fair  in  this  part  of  the  taluk  and  is  also 
attended  by  merchants  from  Kalakada  and  other  places  in 
the  Vayalpad  taluk. 

In  the  temple  of  Ghatturayaru  there  is  a  copper  plate  with 
an  inscription  dated  S.S.  1463  (A.D.  1541)  which  tells  of  a 
caste-dispute  between  the  Padma  Sales  and  Jandras.  The 
point  of  dispute  appears  to  have  been  which  of  the  two  castes 
could  really  trace  their  origin  to  the  goddess  Lakshmi.  The 
Padma  Sales  approached  their  guru  whose  name  was  Talla- 
paka  Tiruvengalanadhayya  and  requested  him  to  discover 
the  truth  of  the  matter.  He  prayed  the  goddess  Lakshmi  at 
Tiruchanur  to  settle  the  point.  The  goddess  gave  her  deci- 
sion in  favour  of  the  Padma  Sales  and  they  in  their  gratitude 
had  the  temple  constructed  with  stone  from  Allaghattu  east 
of  Chandragiri.  Half  the  merit  of  this  deed  belonged  to  the 
guru,  a  quarter  to  the  Padma  Sales  who  built  the  temple  and 
the  other  quarter  remained  to  the  caste  as  a  whole.  The 
community  further  promised  to  pay  their  guru  annually  one 
gold  coin  for  every  weaver's  loom  and  a  silver  piece  for  every 
marriage. 

Lakkireddipallc  is  situated  nine  miles  north-west  of 
Rayachoti  on  the  road  to  Vempalle  near  the  low  ghat  leading 
into  the  Surabhu  valley.  It  has  a  population  of  1,20/,  is  the 
headquarters  of  a  Deputy  Tahsildar  and  a  Sub-Inspector  of 
Police,  and  contains  a  Board  elementary  school.  The 
Deputy  Tahsildar's  division  is  of  recent  creation,  following  the 
redistribution  of  districts  which  took  place  in  1911.  There  is 
a  big  watch-tower  or  bastion  near  the  village  which  is  said  to 
have  been  erected  as  a  means  of  defence  against  the  powerful 
poligars  of  these  parts.  The  whole  of  the  west  of  the  taluk 
as  well  as  the  Surabhu  valley  appears  at  one  time  to  have 
been  more  or  less  dominated  by  some  local  chiefs  called  Ekili  ^ 

^  See  under  Vemula,  Pulivendla  taluk. 


Lakkireddi- 
palle. 


GAZETTEER 


221 


rajas  or  poligars  and  many  stories  are  told  of  their  depreda-  CHAP.  XV. 
tions.  Several  villages  about  here  contain  people  who  still  rXyachoti 
call  themselves  Ekilivandlu.  Taluk. 

There  is  a  community  at  Lakkireddipalle  known  as  Jin-         

kala  Musalmans  who  follow  the  trade  of  masons  and  builders. 
They  were  recently  employed  on  the  construction  of  the  new 
Deputy  Tahsildar's  office. 

It  was  at  the  ghat  near  Lakkireddipalle  that  the  Nizam 
Muzaffar  Jung  was  assassinated  in  the  year  1751  as  the 
result  of  a  conspiracy  engineered  by  the  Nawab  of  Cuddapah.^ 

Galivadu,  population  3,500,  is  situated  about  eighteen  Galivadu. 
miles  west  of  Rayachoti  on  the  road  to  Kadiri.  It  contains  a 
police  station  and  a  branch  post  office.  There  is  a  travellers' 
bungalow,  about  three  miles  west  of  the  village,  at  Veligallu. 
A  market  is  held  every  Wednesday  and,  as  a  business  centre, 
it  is  to  the  west  of  the  taluk  much  what  Tsundupalle  is  to  the 
south-east.  The  village-site  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Chinna  eru  which  enters  the  taluk  from  the  south  and  flows 
into  the  Papaghni  near  the  north-west  corner  of  the  village 
boundary.  Some  channels  taking  off  from  this  stream  irri- 
gate small  areas  on  both  its  banks.  There  is  one  large  tank 
and  several  small  ones,  but  the  entire  irrigated  area  is  small 
in  comparison  with  the  extent  of  arable  land  in  the  village 
which  mostly  consists  of  the  coarse  red  soil  so  characteristic 
of  this  taluk  and  will  often  grow  nothing  but  horse-gram,  one 
of  the  principal  exports  of  the  village. 

There  is  a  ruined  fort  close  to  the  "  casba,"  the  history  of 
which  is  not  known.  It  was  probably  an  outpost  of  the  Ekili 
poligars,  as  some  of  their  descendants  or  retainers,  called 
Ekilivandlu  or  Ekili  Nayanivarlu,  still  reside  in  the  village. 

There  is  a  curious-old  sakti  stone  just  outside  the  village, 
inscribed  with  unintelligible  symbols,  to  which  puja  is  done 
in  times  of  trouble. 

Nulivcdu  is  an  extensive  village  situated  among  low  Nulivedu. 
hills  on  the  by-road  which  leads  from  Galivadu  to  KOnampet. 
It  has  more  than  forty  hamlets  with  a  total  population  of  2,6o8 
and  is  the  headquarters  of  a  firka  revenue  inspector.  The 
fort  to  the  south-east  of  the  village  is  said  to  have  been  built 
by  Kaluva  Nayanivaru  of  the  family  of  Ekili  poligars.  The 
interior  is  now  overgrown  with  scrub-jungle  and  nothing 
remains  of  the  fort  but  its  broken  walls  and  southern  gateway. 
Such  irrigation  facilities  as  the  village  possesses  have  been 
provided  by  damming  the  narrow  valley  which  runs  between 
the    hills  from   the   south-east  boundary   some    three   miles 

1  See  Chapter  II. 


222 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

Rayach5ti 
Taluk. 


Sanipaya. 


northwards.     A  chain  of  tanks   and  kuntas   has  thus  been 
formed,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Merugulacheruvu. 

There  are  about  forty  hand-looms  in  the  village,  and  the 
weavers,  after  supplying  purely  local  requirements,  sell  their 
surplus  products  at  Galivadu  and  Rayachoti.  Some  Musal- 
mans  find  employment  in  tanning.  Date  mats  are  manufac- 
tured by  Voddes  and  sold  in  the  surrounding  villages.  There 
is  a  community  of  the  Yanadi  ^  tribe  permanently  settled  in 
this  village. 

Sanipaya  is  situated  on  the  Rayachoti-Rajampet  road 
close  to  the  ghat  by  which  the  road  passes  over  the  Sesha- 
chalamsinto  Pullampet  taluk.  It  has  a  population,  including 
its  hamlets,  of  1,922  and  contains  a  travellers'  bungalow  and 
a  police  station.  Its  distance  from  Rayachoti  is  fifteen  miles. 
The  villagers  generally  purchase  their  requirements  at 
Rajampet  which  is  twenty  miles  distant  as  it  has  a  better 
market  than  Rayachoti.  Contractors  for  minor  forest  produce 
export  honey,  bees'  wax  and  nuts  such  as  the  sdrapappti  to 
Cuddapah  as  well  as  to  Rajampet.  Merchants  of  Rayachoti 
on  their  return  from  the  weekly  market  at  Rajampet  halt  at 
Sanipaya  on  Thursdays  and  sell  a  few  necessaries  to  the 
villagers  before  proceeding  on  their  journey. 

Sanipaya  was  once  the  seat  of  a  poligar  whose  family 
obtained  this  and  some  other  villages  from  the  king  of 
Golconda  early  in  the  17th  century  soon  after  the  kamil  survey. 
These  villages  formed  several  poliems  held  by  different 
branches  of  the  same  family.  Chintakuntabanda  and  Sani- 
paya belonged  to  one  branch,  while  others  held  respectively 
the  poliems  of  Motakatla  and  Yerramnenipalem.  The  kamil 
of  the  Chintakuntabanda  and  Sanipaya  poliem  was  21/ 
kantaraya  pagodas  and  the  peshkash  was  fixed  at  168.  This 
was  raised  by  the  Cuddapah  Nawabs  to  224  and  again  by  the 
Mahrattas  in  1756  to  253  kantaraya  pagodas.  The  poligar  was 
expelled  by  Mir  Sahib,  the  Governor  of  Gurramkonda,  under 
Haidar  Ali  in  1/75,  but  he  recovered  his  villages  temporarily 
during  the  war  in  1791,  losing  them  again  the  following  year. 
He  returned  finally  in  1799  and  the  poliem  was  assessed 
by  Kamar-ud-din  at  1,776  kantaraya  pagodas.  Such  is  the 
account  given  by  Munro.  The  family  papers,  however,  state 
that  three  brothers  of  the  family  served  under  the  Vijayanagar 
Emperor  Narasimha  Deva  Raya  at  the  end  of  the  15th  century 
and  obtained  from  him  the  village  of  Malinenipatnam  in 
Sidhout  taluk  as  a  jagir  free  of  rent.  In  the  following  reign 
the  two  sons  of  one  of  these  brothers  served  under  the  Emperor 

*  See  Chapter  III. 


GAZETTEER 


223 


CHAP.  XV. 

Ravachoti 
Taluk. 


Krishnaraya  and  followed  him  to  Gurramkonda.  While  the 
Emperor  was  there  he  received  complaints  of  the  turbulence 
of  the  country  and  ordered  the  two  brothers  to  bring  the  dis- 
turbers to  book.     This  they  did  and  received  as  a  reward  

the  villages  of  Motakatla,  Yerramnenipalem,  Guriginjakunta, 
Chintakuntabanda  and  Sanipaya  as  free  jagirs  and  the 
right  to  collect  fees,  known  as  kdvali  rusums,  ^  for  the  protec- 
tion of  twenty-four  other  villages. 

Viraballi  lies  under  the  Seshachalam  hills  on  the  right  virabalii. 
bank  of  the  Mandavya  river.  It  has  a  large  number  of 
hamlets,  with  an  inclusive  population  of  3,332.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  a  revenue  inspector  and  contains  a  travellers' 
bungalow,  police  station,  branch  post  office  and  Board 
elementary  school.  There  is  a  direct  road  to  Rayachoti  which 
is  distant  about  ten  miles  south-west.  Two  miles  south  of 
the  village-site  is  one  of  the  largest  tanks  in  the  taluk.  It  is 
formed  by  the  erection  of  a  dam  a  mile  and  a  half  long 
across  the  vanka  which  is  fed  by  hill  streams  from  the 
Seshachalams  close  by  and  also  receives  the  drainage  of  the 
uplands  of  Polimerapalle  north  of  the  Bahuda  valley.  In  the 
heavy  floods  of  1903  when  numerous  smaller  tanks  in  the 
taluk  were  destroyed  this  one  sustained  an  enormous  breach 
in  the  middle  of  the  bund  near  the  principal  sluice.  The 
flood  in  its  course  three  miles  northwards  to  the  Mandavya 
swept  away  every  vestige  of  arable  land  depositing  sand 
and  exposing  here  and  there  the  underlying  rock.  The  tank, 
which  has  an  ayacut  of  four  hundred  acres,  was  taken  up  for 
repairs  by  the  Public  Works  Department  about  two  years  ago. 

A  stone  with  an  inscription  in  archaic  characters, 
formerly  set  up  on  the  bank  of  the  Mandavya,  has  now  fallen 
into  the  river.  The  inscription,  which  has  not  yet  been  satis- 
factorily deciphered  owing  to  a  defect  in  the  impression 
obtained,  would  probably  repay  examination.  A  weekly 
market  is  held  in  this  village  every  Saturday. 

Vangimalla,  as  its  name  seems  to  imply,  is  situated  where  VangimaiU 
the  hill  range  of  the  Palkondas  bends  to  the  west.  It  lies 
close  under  the  hills  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Gangana,  a  small 
stream  which  joins  the  Mandavya  half  a  mile  before  it  enters 
the  winding  gorge  leading  to  Gadikota.  The  distance  to 
Rayachoti  by  the  road  through  Viraballi  is  eleven  miles. 
There  is  a  co-operative  credit  society  in  this  village. 

The  village  contains  several  temples,  the  largest  of  which 
is  that  of  Malleswaraswami  under  the  Palkonda  hills  half  a 
mile    north   of  the  village.     The   eight  pillars    of  the  front 

'  See  footnote  regardiag  kavaligars  under  Peddakudala,  Pulivcndla  taluk. 


224 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

Rayachoti 
Taluk. 


Gadikota 


Matli. 


Chinnaman- 
dem. 


chamber  are  tastefully  carved  with  figures  bearing  reference 
to  Vishnu,  though  the  temple  is  dedicated  to  Siva.  Opposite 
the  temple  is  a  stone  with  an  inscription  of  the  Vijayanagar 
period  dated  S.S.  1466  or  A.D.  1544.  Near  the  hamlet  of 
Rachapalle  is  a  temple  of  the  tutelary  goddess  known  as 
Arinamma.  Hers  is  a  terrible  figure,  nine  feet  high,  and 
eight  feet  broad,  with  eyes  as  large  as  oranges  and  four 
arms,  while  round  her  feet  are  snakes  and  the  heads  of  men. 
An  inscription  records  that  she  was  established  here  in 
S.S.  1367  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Deva  Raya. 

Some  Yerukulas  have  settled  in  this  village  and  obtain 
their  livelihood  by  the  manufacture  of  baskets  and  tatties. 

Gadikota  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mandavya  river  in 
an  enclave  in  the  Palkonda  hills.  It  can  only  be  reached  by 
way  of  the  sandy  river-bed,  but  it  is  worth  a  visit  for  the 
sake  of  the  scenery  which  is  very  fine,  the  cliffs  rising  in 
many  places  precipitously  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  There 
is  a  large  fort  near  the  village  which  is  said  to  have  been 
built  by  one  of  the  Matli  family. 

The  river  provides  good  irrigation  to  the  lands  on  its 
banks,  which  are  for  the  most  part  grown  with  tobacco.  The 
soil  is  a  very  good  quality  of  red  loam  and  this  crop  appears 
to  do  exceedingly  well  as  the  profit  on  an  acre  is  said  some- 
times to  exceed  Rs.  200.  Tobacco  from  here  is  sent  in  large 
quantities  to  Rajampet  and  Cuddapah  whence  it  is  exported 
to  more  distant  markets. 

Matli  is  situated  on  the  Mandavya  river  about  five  miles 
north-east  of  Rayachoti.  It  contains  a  small  fort,  now  in 
ruins.  It  was  the  original  home  of  the  Matli  rajas  who 
attained  to  considerable  political  importance  in  the  eastern 
division  of  the  district  during  the  Vijayanagar  period  and 
maintained  their  ascendancy  till  the  end  of  the  l8th  century. 
The  village  is  of  no  particular  importance  at  the  present  day. 

Chinnamandem,  population  2,870,  is  situated  some  ten 
miles  south-west  of  Rayachoti,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Mandavya  river  and  a  little  west  of  the  road  to  Gurramkonda. 
It  contains  a  police  station  and  a  branch  post  office.  A 
weekly  market  is  held  every  Friday,  About  three  miles 
further  south,  on  the  other  side  of  the  road,  there  is  a  travel- 
lers' bungalow  near  the  hamlet  of  Kesapuram,  In  this  hamlet 
also  is  a  village  goddess,  Paleti  Gangamma,  who  is  regarded 
with  more  than  usual  importance.  Her  annual  festival  in 
March  attracts  a  concourse  of  about  two  thousand  people, 
many  of  whom  come  from  the  Vayalpad  and  Madanapallc 
taluks. 


GAZETTEER  225 

There  are  two  ruined  forts  in  the  village,  the  history  of  CHAP.  XV. 
which  is  not  known.  R\yach6ti 

There  is  a  sacred  pool  of  unknown   depth  in  the   hills       Taluk. 
which   separate  the   village  of  Paramatakona,  once    a   part  - — 

of  Chinnamandem,  from  Tsakibanda.  The  hill  in  which  it 
is  situated  is  locally  known  as  Akkadevatala  konda  or  "  hill 
of  the  holy  sisters."  The  pool  has  the  appearance  of  a 
well  sunk  in  the  solid  rock  and  is  about  fifteen  feet  in 
diameter.  In  the  hot  weather  the  water  sinks  to  a  depth  of 
twenty  or  twenty-five  feet  below  the  brim  and  in  the  rainy 
season  rises  nearly  to  the  top.  It  used  formerly  to  overflow — 
as  is  evident  from  the  appearance  of  the  face  of  the  rock  on 
the  Paramatakona  side — but  never  does  so  now  because,  as  the 
people  say,  a  shepherd  boy  once  committed  the  sacrilege  of 
drinking  from  it ;  hence  however  heavy  be  the  rains  the  water 
does  not  rise  higher  than  about  three  feet  from  the  top.  A 
few  hundred  yards  west  of  the  pool  is  a  natural  cave  which  is 
called  the  temple  of  the  Akkadevatalu.  Six  or  seven  stones 
within  the  cavern  represent  the  goddesses  and  their  foot- 
prints are  clearly  visible  on  the  flatstone  in  front  of  the 
temple  entrance.  People  desirous  of  some  blessing,  especially 
the  childless  who  wish  for  a  family,  perform  their  vows  at 
the  temple  and  feed  an  assembly  on  the  hill.  The  place  is 
generally  visited  in  the  month  of  November  when  the  water 
in  the  sacred  pool  will  have  reached  its  highest  level.  Once 
in  two  or  three  years  a  festival  will  take  place  at  the  expense 
of  any  person  who  desires  to  show  his  gratitude  to  the 
goddesses  for  blessings  received.  A  cardinal  feature  of  the 
ceremonies  performed  is  the  offering  of  food  to  the  goddesses 
beneath  the  water.  The  offerings  are  let  down  into  the  water 
by  the  pujari  and  sink  at  once,  a  few  fragments  subsequently 
rising  to  the  surface  to  show  that  they  have  been  accepted. 
The  pujari  also  offers  saffron  and  hDikumam  on  a  betel-leaf 
in  the  same  way,  and  if,  when  the  leaf  rises  again  to  the 
surface,  it  shows  the  impression  of  finger  nails  it  is  confi- 
dently believed  that  the  wishes  of  those  who  then  perform 
vows  will  be  fulfilled.  There  are  inam  fields  set  apart  for  the 
performance  of  worship  to  these  goddesses,  and  the  pujari  is 
a  Brahman. 

BADVEL  TALUK. 

Badvel  is  the  northernmost  of  the  three  taluks  forming  the  Badvel 
eastern   division  of  the  district.     On  the  west  it  is  separated  Taluk 
from  Proddatur  and  Cuddapah  by  the  Nallamalai  and  Lanka- 
malai  hills,  while  the  Veligondas  along  the  Nellore  frontier 

29 


226 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

Badvel 
Taluk. 


constitute  its  eastern  boundary.  Irregular  and  artificial 
boundaries  divide  it  on  the  south  from  the  Sidhout  taluk  and 
on  the  north  from  the  Cumbum  taluk  of  Kurnool  district.  It 
contains  an  area  of  755  square  miles  and  a  population  of  95,896- 

The  Sagiler  is  the  only  river  in  the  taluk.  It  rises  in  the 
Nallamalai  hills  within  the  Kurnool  district  and  flowing 
eastwards  for  the  first  few  miles  of  its  course  along  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  taluk  turns  southwards  and  proceeds 
through  the  centre  of  the  taluk  to  its  southern  boundary, 
finally  joining  the  Penner  in  Sidhout  taluk.  As  a  factor  in 
irrigation  some  value  has  been  imparted  to  the  Sagiler  by  the 
project  which  bears  its  name  and  was  designed  to  improve 
the  supply  to  the  great  tank  at  Porumamilla  and  others  higher 
up.  The  steepness  of  the  banks  through  most  of  its  course, 
while  affording  opportunity  for  irrigation  by  doruvu  wells,  is 
generally  unfavourable  to  the  construction  of  river  channels. 
The  prosperity  of  the  taluk  depends  rather  upon  the  irrigation 
afforded  by  its  tanks,  of  which  those  at  Badvel  and  Poruma- 
milla are  the  largest  in  the  district. 

In  the  quality  of  its  soils  Badvel  taluk  is  less  favoured  than 
the  other  taluks  of  the  eastern  division.  It  contains  no  such 
alluvial  deposits  as  are  found  in  the  valleys  of  the  Penner  and 
Cheyyer,  while  such  regar  soils  as  it  possesses  are  generally 
poor  and  often  highly  impregnated  with  deleterious  salts. 
Red  soils  predominate  and  vary  greatly  in  texture  and  value. 
The  best  tract  is  a  light  clay  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kotta- 
kota  in  the  north-east.  The  taluk  is  also  unfortunate  in  its 
rainfall.  The  annual  average  no  doubt  exceeds  that  of  the 
western  taluks,  but  the  porous  soils  of  Badvel  require  a  much 
heavier  drenching  than  the  black  cotton  soils  of  Jammala- 
madugu  and  Proddatur.  The  other  taluks  of  the  eastern 
division  are  much  better  off  in  this  respect,  the  rainfall  of 
Sidhout  and  Pullampet  exceeding  that  of  Badvel  by  over  five 
and  eight  inches  respectively. 

In  communications  the  taluk  is  no  less  at  a  disadvantage. 
It  is  further  removed  from  the  railway  than  any  other  part  of 
the  district,  and  its  metalled  roads  are  few.  Of  these  the  most 
important  is  the  Cuddapah-Cumbum  road  through  Sidhout, 
which  passes  northwards  through  Badvel  and  Porumamilla  to 
Giddalur  and  Cumbum  in  the  Kurnool  district.  At  Badvel 
this  road  meets  the  main  road  from  Nellore  which  is  continued 
westwards  over  a  low  ghat  in  the  Nallamalais  to  Proddatur. 
From  the  latter  town  there  is  also  a  direct  road  to  Poruma- 
milla. The  largest  and  most  important  place  in  the  taluk  is 
its  headquarters. 


GAZETTEER 


227 


CHAP.  XV. 

Badvel 
Taluk. 

Badvel. 


feadvel,  with  a  population  of  11,590.  This  is  the  fifth 
largest  town  in  the  district.  Its  nearest  railway  station  is 
Vontimitta  at  a  distance  of  nearly  thirty  miles  to  the  south. 
Except  that  there  is  no  stationary  sub-magistrate  at  Badvel, 
it  contains  all  the  offices  usual  to  a  taluk  headquarters.  It 
has  also  a  local  fund  dispensary.  Near  the  junction  of  the 
Sidhout  and  Proddatur  roads  is  a  travellers'  bungalow 
maintained  by  the  Public  Works  Department.  Formerly 
there  was  a  District  Munsif's  Court  at  Badvel,  but  it  was 
transferred  to  Proddatur  in  1884. 

The  great  tank  at  Badvel  is  its  principal  source  of  wealth. 
It  affords  irrigation  to  seven  villages,  of  which  Badvel  receives 
the  greatest  share.  It  has  an  area  of  about  a  thousand  acres 
under  the  tank,  of  which  more  than  half  consists  of  inam 
lands.  Surplus  rice  is  chiefly  exported  to  Udayagiri  in  Nellore 
district.  Turmeric  and  indigo  find  a  market  in  Cuddapah. 
Its  position  on  the  main  roads  connecting  Cuddapah  with 
Cumbum  and  Nellore  renders  Badvel  a  trade  centre  for  the 
eastern  taluks  only  second  in  importance  to  Rajampet.  In 
the  making  of  shoes  and  sandals  it  has  developed  a  consider- 
able industry  affording  occupation  to  a  large  proportion  of 
the  Musalman  population.  Badvel  was  constituted  a  union 
in  1886.  It  has  an  income  of  rather  more  than  two  thousand 
rupees,  principally  made  up  of  house-tax  receipts,  minor  items 
being  cart-stand  and  market  fees.  There  is  a  school  for 
Musalmans  and  a  girls'  school  as  well  as  an  ordinary  primary 
school,  all  maintained  by  Local  funds. 

The  Hindu  temples  present  no  feature  of  particular 
interest.  There  are  two  dargas  in  the  town.  That  in  the 
name  of  Saiyid  Khaja  Ghouse  Muhi-ud-din  is  the  more 
important,  whereat  vows  are  performed  by  Hindus  as  well  as 
Musalmans. 

Porumamilla,  with  a  population  of  5,634,  is  a  Union  town  PorumamiUa. 
on  the  Cuddapah-Cvmibum  road  situated  some  twenty  miles 
north  of  Badvel.  It  contains  a  travellers'  bungalow  belong- 
ing to  the  Public  Works  Department.  Like  Badvel  it  derives 
its  importance  from  its  great  tank.  On  the  bund  opposite  to 
the  ruined  temple  of  Bairavaswami  are  two  large  stones 
bearing  an  inscription  of  considerable  historical  interest, 
recording  that  the  tank  was  constructed  by  Prince  Bhaskara, 
Viceroy  of  the  Udayagiri  province,  in  the  reign  of  his  father 
the  Emperor  Bukka  I.  The  following  is  an  abstract  of  its 
contents.  ^ 

i  Kindly  furnished  to  me  by  Mr.  H.  Krishna  Sastri,  Assistant  Aichseological 
Superintendent  for  Epigraphy,  Southern  Circle. 


228 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP    XV  [The   first  three   verses   are   devoted   to  an   academic   discussiou    of  how  tiie 

Sanskrit  verses  in  a  sdsana  (document)  are  to  be  composed.] 

BADVEL  r  ,    •        1  1        •  ,  J 

Taluk.  (v*  4)  An  intelligent  man  of  kind  words  issues  a  deed. 

(v.  5)  Invocation  to  Heramba — the  elephant-faced  god. 

(V.  6)  Invocation  to  the  boar  incarnation  of  Vishnu, 
(v,  7)  Invocation  to  Siva  of  Srigiri  {i.e.,  Srisailam). 
(v.  8)  Praise  to  the  earth-goddess. 

(v.  9)  The    Sapta-santdJias  {i.e.,  seven  permanent  issues  of 
a  man)  mentioned,   one  of  which   is  the  construc- 
tion of  a  tank, 
(v.  10)  King      Bhaskara      Bhavadura      performed      these 
santdfias     (charities).      His    genealogy     is     thus 
described : — 
(v.  11)  Moon  from  the  milk  ocean  : 
1  in  his  race.     .     . 
Guru  son  of  Brahman  : 

1  in  this  family 
PuriJravas  and  Nahusha, 
His  son  Yayati : 

I  in  this  family 
Nilambara  and  Sri-Hari  : 

I  in  this  race  in  Kali  age  was  born 
(i)  Samgama. 
(v.  12)  His  son  was  Harihara. 
(v.  13)  All  kings  between  the  eastern  and  western  oceans 

became  his  subordinates, 
(v.  14)  His  brother  was    Kampana  and   the  latter's   brother 

Bukka. 
[v.  15)  Bukka's    brothers     were    Marapa     and    Muddapa. 

They  were  thus  five  brothers  in  all. 
fvv.  16  and  17)  As  Vishnu  was  the  servant  of  the  Pandavas 
in  olden   times    so   was    Anantaraja    minister  of 
Bukka. 
18)  Bukka's  capital  was  Vijayanagara  on  the  bank  of  the 

Tungabhadra  and  in  presence  of  god  Virupaksha. 
iq)  Bukka  had  many  sons. 

20)  Of  them  Prince  Bhaskara  was  appointed  by  Bukka  to 
rule  over  the  eastern  province. 

21)  Bhaskara  was  ruling  from  his  capital  on  the  top  of 
the  Udayagiri  mountain. 

(v.  22)  Of  all  charities,  he  was  informed  that  the  charity  of 
water  was  the  most  meritorious. 

(vv.  23  to  27)  The  importance  of  water  in  creation  de- 
scribed. 

^v.  28)  Prince  Bhavadura  wanted  to  construct  a  tank. 


GAZETTEER  229 

(vv.  29  to  31)  To  the  south  of  Snparvata,  2  ydjanas  east  of  CHAP.  XV. 
Ahobila,  at   the   same  (?)   distance   from    Siddha-       Badv'el 
vatanatha,  in    the   Sakali-country,    2  ydjanas  from        Taluk. 

Udayagiri  hills,  to  the  east   of  town  Porumamilla  

{the  tank  was  founded).     The  exact  date  was  : — 

(vv.  32  to  35)  Saka  1291,  Saumya(A.D.  1369-70),  Karthika, 
Sukla  14,  Thursday,  Pushya,  Karkatakalagna. 

(v.  36)  For  the  benefit  of  future  kings  the  twelve  (favour- 
able) conditions  for  tank  construction  as  specified 
in  the  sdstras  are  enumerated  here  : — ■ 

(vv.  37  and  38)  (i)  The  king  (who  undertakes  the  work)  must 
be  charitable,  wealthy,  healthy,  famous  and  not 
fend  of  money  ;  (2)  he  must  also  be  well  accjuainted 
with  hydrology  or  the  science  of  water  [pathas- 
sastra) ;  (3)  the  ground  (selected)  must  be  of  hard 
soil ;  (4)  (there  must  be)  a  fresh  water  river  at  a 
distance  of  3  ydjanas  and  (5)  a  mountain  close 
by  (?)  ;  (6)  the  bund  which  should  not  be  too  long 
must  be  strongly  constructed  of  huge  blocks  of 
stone  ;  (7)  and  (8)  at  the  two  ends  (of  the  bund  ?) 
there  must  not  be  land  yielding  fruit  {i.e.,  culti- 
vable land) ;  (9)  the  bed  (?)  (tiddra)  must  be  deep 
and  extensive;  (10)  must  have  long  and  broad 
stone  mines  (imbedded  within  it?);  (11)  the 
fields  near  {i.e.,  the  irrigated  lands)  must  be 
fertile  and  of  even  surface;  and  (12)  the  passage 
of  water  (out  of  the  tank?)  must  steadily  flow  on 
hilly  slopes.  Thus,  O  !  men,  an  excellent  tank  on 
earth  is  easily  brought  into  existence  by  observing 
these  twelve  conditions  of  work. 

(v,  39)  These  are  the  six  defects  : — (i)  holes  in  the  bund  ; 
(2)  sterile  soil  ;  (3)  rising  ground  in  the  middle 
and  the  two  ends  (?) ;  (4)  scanty  supply  of  water  ; 
(5)  too  much  or  too  little  of  ground  (catchment 
area  ?)  and  (6)  excessive  supply  of  water. 

(v.  40)  Without  any  defects,  but  with  all  good  points   in  it, 
the   tank    Anantasagara    was    founded    by     King 
Bhaskara. 
[The  details  of  labour.] 

(v.  41)  One  thousand  men  worked  each  day  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  bund  and  the  stone  work  in  the 
revetment  of  waste-weir ;  also  (were  employed) 
one  hundred  carts. 
(v.  42)  It  was  completed  in  two  years.  The  money  and 
grain  spent  were  unlimited. 


230 


CUDDAPAH 


XV. 


CHAP 

Badvkl 
Taluk. 


Sankavaram. 


(v.  43)  The  height,  breadth  and  length  of  the  bund  extend- 
ing as  far  as  the  mountains  (on  either  side)  is 
given  in  terms  of  the  Rekha-danda. 

(v.  44)  ^,ooQ  rekha-dandas\or\g'j  J  (rek/ia-dandas)  high.  •  the 
outlet  of  water  is  by  4  bhramas  (or  sluices)  and 
breadth  is  8  {rlkha-dandas) ;  gods  Vighnesa, 
Tsvara,  Vishnu,  Bhairava,  Maha-Durga  protect  it 
(/.<?.,  the  shrines  for  these  gods  are  found  on  the 
bund).  Many  Brahmans  too  received  presents 
of  land  below  the  tank.     Then  follow  imprecations. 

There  is  a  ruined  fort  in  the  town,  reputed  to  be  of  great 
antiquity.     Nothing  is  known  of  its  history. 

Sankavaram  is  a  prosperous  village  lying  about  three 
miles  north  of  Porumamilla  near  the  road  to  Kalasapad.  It 
has  a  population  of  3,737  and  contains  two  Board  schools  and 
three  Mission  schools  belonging  to  the  Kalasapad  branch  of 
the  S.P.G.  Mission.  It  has  a  large  area  of  irrigated  land  under 
the  Mudireddipalle,  Chintalapalle  and  Porumamilla  tanks,  of 
which  the  two  latter  are  fed  by  the  Sagiler  project  channel. 
The  ryots  sell  their  surplus  produce  at  Porumamilla,  notably 
turmeric  and  jaggery.  The  large  number  of  date  trees  in  the 
vicinity  supply  toddy  to  various  shops  in  the  north  and  centre 
of  the  taluk.  The  health  of  the  village  formerly  suffered  owing 
to  the  prevalence  of  guinea-worm,  but  this  has  largely  decreased 
since  the  construction  of  the  Sagiler  channel,  the  water  of 
which  is  said  to  have  percolated  into  the  wells  and  purified  them- 

To  the  west  of  the  village  is  a  small  fort  with  a  circular 
tower  said  to  have  been  built  by  "  the  Kondavandlu  family  " 
of  Kapus  who  were  very  famous  and  powerful  in  old  times.^ 
At  a  subsequent  period  it  was  occupied  by  a  certain  Desay 
Marka  Reddi,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  powerful  poligar 
during  the  l8th  century.  His  descendants  own  some  shrotriem 
villages  in  the  neighbourhood  which  are  said  to  have  been 
granted  to  the  family  by  Sir  Thomas  Munro. 

About  a  hundred  yards  north  of  the  fort  are  the  remains  of 
an  old  temple  which  tradition  says  was  built  by  a  Vijayanagar 
king.  On  a  stone  close  by  is  a  faded  inscription  wherein  are 
only  legible  a  date,  S.S.  1517  (A.D,  1595),  and  the  name  of 
Venkatapathi  Raja  of  Vijayanagar.  This  illustrates  how  the 
Vijayanagar  suzerainty  was  acknowledged  at  least  in  name, 
many  years  after  the  battle  of  Talikota.     During  the  whole  of 

1  Possibly  the  Redclis  of  Kondavidu  who  continually  menaced  the  northern 
frontier  of  the  Udayagiri  province,  and  occupied  a  portion  of  it  about  the  end  of 
the  15th  century,  from  which  they  were  ousted  and  defeated  by  the  Emperor 
Krishnaraya  A.D.  in  15 14. 


GAZETTEER 


231 


Badvel 
Taluk. 


his  reign  Venkatapathi    Raja  resided  at  Chandragiri    in    the   CHAP.  XV. 
present  Chittoor  district. 

Another    inscription    records   that   the    temple   of   Iswara 

wliich  is  built  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  about  five  miles  north  of  

the  village  was  constructed  in  the  year  S.S.  1205  or  A.D.  1282 
in  the  time  of  Thrighavari  Deva  Maharaja  of  the  Kayastha 
family.  The  Kayasthas  w^ere  powerful  feudatories  of  the 
Kakatlya  kings  of  Warangal  who  extended  their  authority 
over  most  of  the  Cuddapah  district  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
13th  century.  Ambadeva  who  usurped  the  sovereignty  about 
A.D.  1287  belonged  to  the  Kayastha  family. 

Kalasapad  is  one  of  the  more  important  villages  in  the  Kilasapad. 
north  of  the  taluk.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sagiler 
eight  miles  north  of  Porumamilla  and  twenty  miles  south  of 
Giddalur  in  Kurnool  district,  the  nearest  railway  station.  Its 
population,  according  to  the  recent  census,  was  1,783.  It  con- 
tains a  police  station,  a  branch  post  office,  five  private 
choultries,  a  church  and  a  mission  school.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  a  branch  of  the  S.P.G.  Mission. 

The  Kalasapad  tank  is  the  first  of  the  series  of  tanks 
served  by  the  Sagiler  project,  and  has  an  ayacut  of  about  two 
hundred  acres  in  Kalasapad  and  three  smaller  villages.  Some 
three  miles  north  of  the  village  a  hill  stream  flows  through  a 
narrow  valley  between  two  ridges  of  hills  across  which  a  dam 
has  been  thrown  at  the  southern  outlet  to  form  a  large  tank 
known  as  Racheruvu.  This  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
spots  in  the  taluk.  The  tank  has  an  ayacut  of  over  a  thousand 
acres  and  irrigates  lands  in  eight  villages  including  Kalasa- 
pad. The  Racheruvu  and  the  village  of  Rajupalem,  about  a 
mile  to  the  south  of  it,  are  said  to  have  been  built  by  Prince 
Bhaskara  at  the  same  time  as  the  Porumamilla  tank. 

Attached  to  the  temple  of  Chennakesavaswami  is  the  mutt 
of  Induri  Appayya,  a  latter  day  saint  held  in  great  repute  by 
Brahmans.  His  native  place  was  Rangasamudram  in  Madana- 
palle  taluk,  but  he  lived  at  Kalasapad.  The  following  is  an 
example  of  the  stories  that  are  told  of  him.  On  the  day  of 
the  Garudotsavam  of  Sri  Venkateswaraswami  at  Tirupati 
his  mother  expressed  the  wish  that  they  were  there.  He 
directed  his  mother  to  lie  on  a  mat  and  close  her  eyes.  She 
did  so,  and  shortly  afterwards  both  she  and  her  son  were  seen 
wandering  in  the  streets  of  Tirupati  by  people  of  their  village 
who  had  gone  to  the  festival.  On  their  enquiring  with  amaze- 
ment how  he  and  his  mother  came  there,  he  replied  that  the 
god  Venkateswarulu  has  brought  them.  Then  he  conckicted 
them   to   the    temple    and  showed  them  round  the    town    till 


232 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV.  the  evening.  On  going  to  a  choultry  to  retire  for  the  night 
Badvel  his  mother  expressed  a  regret  that  she  had  bought  no  presents 
Taluk.       in   the   bazaar   for   her   grandchildren.     In    the   morning  she 

awoke  and  found  herself  in  her  own  house  at  Kalasapad,  and 

on  opening  the  door  of  a  room  in  the  house  she  found  all  the 
presents  she  had  regretted  not  buying  the  previous  day.  This 
holy  man  died  at  Kalasapad  and  was  buried  there  about  forty- 
five  years  ago.  It  is  said  that  he  tried  to  have  himself  buried 
alive  at  Rangasamudram,  but  the  police  forbade  him.  So  he 
went  back  to  Kalasapad  and  expired  after  eight  days'  fasting 
and  religious  contemplation.  Even  now  puja  is  performed  at 
his  tomb  by  one  of  his  relatives. 

Kottakota.  Kottakota  is  situated  between  the  Sagiler  and  the  Nalla- 

malais  about  five  miles  north-west  of  Kalasapad.  For  account 
purposes  the  village  and  its  hamlets  still  go  by  the  name  of 
Kottakota  though  the  casba  is  no  longer  inhabited.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  abandoned  after  the  destruction  of  the  fort,  of 
which  nothing  now  remains  but  crumbling  walls  and  a  half- 
filled  moat.  It  must  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  import- 
ance at  one  time,  as  the  ruined  fort  is  nearly  as  extensive  as 
the  one  at  Sidhout.  Its  history,  however,  is  a  matter  of  conjec- 
ture. Tradition  says  it  was  built  by  a  poligar  named  Krishna 
Reddi  who  also  built  the  forts  at  Kalasapad,  Narasapuram 
and  another  in  the  Nallamalai  hills  some  ten  miles  west  of 
Kottakota.  Within  the  fort  on  the  hills  is  a  large  square 
tank,  stone  revetted,  with  steps  on  every  side,  sunk  to  a  great 
depth  and  supplied  by  perennial  springs.  It  seems  more 
probable  that  these  forts  were  constructed  in  the  time  of  the 
Vijayanagar  Empire  to  protect  its  north-east  frontier  which 
was  continually  exposed  to  hostile  raids.  Of  the  traditional 
poligar  Krishna  Reddi  nothing  is  known. 

The  principal  hamlet  of  the  village  is  Eguva  Ramapuram, 
whose  inhabitants,  chiefly  wealthy  Kammas  and  Pedda- 
kanti  Kapus,  number  I,o8l  according  to  the  census  of  IQII. 
Furniture-making  provides  employment  to  some  skilful  car- 
penters in  this  village  who  obtain  excellent  timber  from 
the  Nallamalai  forests.  They  make  chairs  of  various  kinds, 
stools,  cots  and  tables,  besides  doing  a  large  business  in 
agricultural  implements  and  country  carts  which  they  export 
to  Koilkuntla  and  Proddatur  taluks.  Poorer  people  of  the 
village  trade  in  minor  forest  produce. 

Munneiii.  MunnclH,  population  2,750,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 

Sagiler  about  fifteen  miles  north-west  of  Badvel.  Though  the 
village  itself  is  not  large,  the  area  attached  to  it  for  adminis- 
trative purposes  extends  from  the  Sagiler  on  the  west  to  the 


GAZETTEER  233 

ridge  of  hills  on  the  east  which  marks  off  the  valley  containing  cHAP.  XV. 
the  POrumamilla  and  Badvel  tanks.    The  distance  between  its       badvhl 
northern  and  southern  boundaries  is  nearly  as  great,  so  that  it       Taluk. 

covers,  together  with  its  numerous  hamlets,  an  area  of  about         

ten  square  miles.     The  village  contains  five  fairly  large  tanks 
irrigating  in  the  aggregate  several  hundreds  of  acres. 

Two  inscriptions  in  this  village  as  well  as  others  in  the 
Sagiler  valley  show  that  in  the  middle  of  the  l6th  century 
this  part  of  the  district  was  included  in  the  Gandikota  shna. 
At  an  earlier  period  of  the  Vijayanagar  ascendancy  Badvel 
taluk  appears  to  have  fallen  within  the  Siddhavattam  5/wa ; 
but  it  is  possible  that  the  latter  was  a  sub-division  of  Gandi- 
kota and  not  a  separate  district. 

Every  four  or  five  years  a  h\g  jatr a  takes  place  at  Munnelli 
in  honour  of  the  village  deity  Devagiri  Ankalamma.  It  lasts 
seven  days  and  attracts  an  assembly  of  about  four  thousand 
people  from  various  parts  of  the  taluk.  Animal  sacrifices  are, 
as  usual,  the  principal  feature  of  this  festival.  Hundreds  of 
sheep  and  goats  are  thus  immolated,  the  sacrifice  being 
inaugurated  on  the  fifth  day  by  the  slaughter  of  a  buffalo. 
At  Rajupalem,  a  hamlet  of  Munnelli,  another  great  festival 
is  occasionally  held  in  honour  of  the  goddess  Palnati 
Ankalamma.  Several  villages  in  the  Sagiler  valley  worship 
this  goddess.  Her  cult  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  by  a 
Mala  from  Palnad  in  Guntur  district.  No  buffaloes  at  all  are 
sacrificed  at  this  festival,  but  only  sheep  and  goats.  People 
of  the  Baineni  caste  are  paid  to  come  from  Palnad  and  recite 
the  palnati  siiddnlu  during  the  festival. 

Coarse  country  cloths  are  woven  by  people  of  the  barber 
caste  in  this  village, 

Palugurallapallc,  with  a  population  of  2,703,  is  situated  Paluguralla- 
about  twelve  miles  north-west  of  Badvel  on  the  right  bank  P^i^^. 
of  the  Sagiler.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  a  revenue  inspector 
and  contains  a  branch  post  office,  a  Board  school  and  a  mission 
school.  It  is  an  important  outstation  of  the  Kalasapad  Mission. 
Its  church,  which  is  a  stone  building  with  a  roof  of  Mangalore 
tiles,  was  dedicated  by  the  Bishop  of  Madras  in  1904- 

The  village  has  four  tanks,  of  which  the  two  larger  have 
good  catchment  areas  and  irrigate  fairly  large  ayacuts  ;  but 
the  soils  are  on  the  whole  very  poor,  abounding  in  deleterious 
salts  and  palugu  rdllu,^  the  prevalence  of  which  presumably 
gave  the  village  its  name. 

There  is  a  mutt  at  this  village  in  the  name  of  one 
Govindaswami,    a    saintly   Brahman    who  performed    many 

1  See  under  rarnapuUe  of  Pulivendla  taluk. 
30 


234 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV.  miracles  during  his  lifetime.  A  curious  story  is  told  to  the 
Radvel  effect  that  the  swami  in  one  of  his  journeyings  came  to 
Taluk.  Maidukuru  where  the  Collector  was  holding  jamabandi. 
While  there  he  was  observed  by  the  Collector  to  wring  his 
hands  vehemently.  On  the  Collector  asking  him  to  explain 
this  unaccountable  action  the  saint  replied  that  the  screen  of 
Varadarajaswami  at  Conjeeveram  was  being  burned.  The 
Collector  thereupon  wrote  to  the  Collector  of  Chingleput  and 
enquired  if  any  such  thing  had  happened,  and  received  a  reply 
to  the  effect  that  the  event  had  actually  occurred  at  the  time 
the  swami  had  spoken  of  it.  The  Collector  of  Cuddapah,  it  is 
said,  appreciated  the  powers  of  the  swami  so  highly  that  he 
gave  him  an  inam  of  three  acres  in  Dorasanipalle,  a  hamlet  of 
Rameswaram  in  Proddatur  taluk. 


SIDHOUT  TALUK. 

SiDHouT  Sidhout  is  the  central  taluk  of  the  eastern   division.     Its 

Taluk.  northern   and  southern  boundaries  correspond  to  no  natural 

feature,  but  the  Veligondas  separate  it  from  the  Nellore  district 
on  the  east  and  the  Palkondas  from  Cuddapah  taluk  and  the 
north-east  corner  of  Rayachoti  taluk  on  the  west.  The  area 
of  the  taluk  is  6o6  square  miles.  It  contains  seventy-nine 
villages  with  a  total  population  of  64,333.  The  Penner  in  its 
course  through  the  taluk  from  west  to  east  receives  the  waters 
of  the  Sagiler  on  the  north  and  the  Cheyyer,  a  more  important 
tributary,  on  the_south.  Further  east  the  Tummala  vanka 
which  drains  the  Obulam  valley  joins  it  from  the  north.  The 
valley  of  the  Sagiler  is  separated  from  the  Obulam  valley  by 
a  ridge  of  hills  which  starts  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Kalasapad  in  the  north  of  Badvel  taluk  and  extends  southwards 
as  far  as  the  confluence  of  the  Cheyyer  and  Penner,  where  it 
turns  eastwards  and  merges  with  the  Veligondas  on  the 
borders  of  Pullampet  taluk,  thus  terminating  the  Obulam 
valley.  A  few  miles  west  of  this  ridge  and  separated  there- 
from by  a  narrow  strip  of  low  country  along  the  right  bank  of 
the  Penner  is  an  offshoot  of  the  Palkonda  range  which  encloses 
the  Vontimitta  valley.  The  railway  line  enters  this  valley 
about  three  miles  north  of  Nandalur  station  and  takes  a  north- 
westerly direction  following  the  Madras-Bombay  trunk  road 
through  the  gap  in  the  hills  to  Cuddapah. 

Like  Badvel,  the  Sidhout  taluk  depends  for  its  irrigation 
mainly  upon  rainfed  tanks  of  which  the  largest  are  those 
at  Vontimitta,  Ramapuram  and  Madapur.  River  channels 
are  scarce  as  the  banks  of  the  Penner  and  Sagiler  are  steep 
and  more  suited  to  the  construction  of  doruvu  wells.     The  best 


GAZETTEER 


235 


soils  in  the  taluk,  alluvial  in  origin,  are  found  in  the  valley 
of  the  Penner,  west  of  Sidhout,  and  the  lower  reaches  of  the 
Sagiler.  Elsewhere  red  soils  largely  predominate,  and  their 
quality  is  good  in  parts  of  the  Vontimitta  valley.  North  of  the 
Penner  there  are  stretches  of  saline  soil  which  make  for  a  low 
average  of  fertility- 

On  the  left  bank  of  the  Penner  about  ten  miles  east  of 
Cuddapah  is — 

Siddhavattam  or  Sidhout,  the  headquarters  of  the  taluk. 
It  is  a  union,  with  a  population  of  3,636.  A  metalled  road  con- 
nects Sidhout  with  the  Vontimitta  railway  station  at  a  distance 
of  eight  miles.  The  Sidhout  railway  station,  though  much 
nearer,  is  situated  in  the  jungle  and  comparatively  inaccessible. 
After  the  departure  of  Munro  and  the  bifurcation  of  the  Ceded 
Districts,  Sidhout  was  for  some  years  the  residence  of  the 
Collector,  but  was  abandoned  in  favour  of  Cuddapah  in  the 
year  1817.  It  was  till  recently  the  headquarters  of  the  Revenue 
Divisional  Officer.  The  office  is  still  located  there,  while  the 
Sub-Collector  resides  at  Cuddapah  pending  the  completion  of 
a  bungalow  and  office  premises  at  Rajampet.  An  Inspector 
of  the  Salt  and  Abkari  Department  is  stationed  at  Sidhout, 
which  also  contains,  besides  the  taluk  office,  a  Sub-Registrar's 
office,  Forest  Range  office.  Local  Fund  dispensary  and  a  post 
office.  There  is  no  telegraph  office.  The  Public  Works 
Department  maintains  a  travellers'  bungalow.  The  historical 
interest  of  Sidhout  centres  in  its  fort.  Within  it  are  to  be 
seen  traces  of  Hindu  temples  of  which,  prior  to  the  Musalman 
ascendancy,  there  were  three,  named  the  Siddheswaraswami, 
Siddhavateswaraswami  and  Ranganathaswami  temples. 
Early  in  the  17th  century  Anantaramaraju,  a  powerful  prince 
of  the  Matli  family,  whose  authority  over  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try was  practically  unchecked,  was  invited  by  the  Brahmans 
of  Sidhout  to  visit  the  temples  on  his  return  from  Badvel  to 
his  headquarters  in  Pullampet  taluk.  During  his  halt  there 
he  gave  orders  that  the  temples  should  be  surrounded  with  a 
strong  compound  wall.  On  the  south-east  side  of  the  wall  an 
inscription  records  its  construction  by  Matli  Anantaramaraju 
in  the  year  S.S.  1527  (A.D.  1604).  This  wall  became  the 
nucleus  of  the  fort  which  was  built  by  Abdul  Alam  Khan, 
Nawab  of  Cuddapah,  about  A.D.  1755.  A  moat  was  dug  and 
water  let  into  it  from  the  Penner.  Upon  the  southern  wall  of 
the  fort,  where  it  rises  sheer  above  the  river  bank,  the  Nawab 
constructed  a  mosque,  with  a  residence  for  himself  close  by. 
The  mosque  being  still  in  use  is  kept  in  good  repair.  When 
the  river  comes  down  in  full  flood  and  washes  the    foot  of  the 


CHAP.  XV. 

Sidhout 
Taluk. 


Siddha- 
vattam. 


236  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  XV.  wall  the  view  from  the  top  of  it  across  half  a  mile  of  swirling 
SiDHOUT  torrent  to  the  hills  on  the  south  is  sufficiently  striking  to  repay 
Taluk.        the  trouble  of  a  visit.     After  the  Musalman  occupation  the 

Hindu  temples  within  the  fort  were  dismantled  and  the  idols 

removed  and  installed  in  fresh  temples.  It  was  in  the  Sidhout 
fort  that  the  Nawab  Alam  Khan  was  finally  captured  by  Haidar 
Ali  in  1779  and  sent  a  prisoner  to  Seringapatam.  He  is 
reputed  to  have  been  but  a  poor  soldier  and  addicted  to  a  life 
of  pleasure.  About  a  mile  west  of  Sidhout  in  a  little  village 
called  Rajampet  which  forms  part  of  the  union  of  Sidhout 
is  a  well  called  "  Bhogandani  bhavi,  "  curiously  built,  with  pil- 
lared verandahs  on  every  side.  It  is  only  possible  to  discern 
the  well — square-shaped,  with  stone  steps — after  passing 
within  the  verandah.  It  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  by 
Alam  Khan  at  the  request  of  his  favourite  dancing-girl,  who 
lived  in  a  two-storied  house  close  by,  and  hence  its  name. 
The  Bhogandani  well  is  included  in  the  List  of  Ancient 
Monuments  conserved  by  the  Archaeological  Department. 

Three  miles  west  of  Rajampet  is  another  little  village  on  the 
same  side  of  the  river,  named  Joti.  It  contains  a  temple  of 
Siddheswaram  which  is  almost  completely  buried  in  the  sand. 
It  is  an  ancient  structure  and  is  supposed  to  contain  very 
valuable  inscriptions  at  present  concealed.  There  are  also  two 
Vishnu  temples  of  archaeological  interest  about  a  mile  west  of 
the  village. 

Owing  to  some  resemblance,  real  or  imagined,  in  its  situ- 
ation on  the  Penner  and  the  relative  position  of  neighbouring 
villages  Sidhout  is  sometimes  known  as  Dakshana  Kasi  or 
Southern  Benares.  That  the  Penner  was  thus  associated  with 
the  Ganges  from  very  early  times  is  also  indicated  by  the 
existence  of  two  villages  called  Pennaperur  and  Gangaperur 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  river,  a  few  miles  north  of  Vontimitta. 
Again,  in  such  matters  as  ceremonial  bathing  and  cremation, 
the  Penner  is  held  to  be  endowed  with  the  greatest  religious 
efficacy. 

The  cultivation  of  "  Cuddapah  melons  "  in  the  river-bed  is 
carried  out  more  extensively  at  Sidhout  than  anywhere  else  in 
the  district.  They  are  raised  between  December  and  March, 
that  is  to  say,  as  soon  as  the  freshes  run  dry  after  the  cessation 
of  the  cold  weather  rains.  The  growers  mark  out  their  plots 
in  the  sandy  bed  of  the  river  and  raise  the  fruit  either  by 
transplanting  seedlings  or  sowing  the  seeds  in  pits.  The 
plants  require  heavy  manuring  thrice  in  the  season.  Some 
fifteen  hundred  plants  creep  over  an  acre  of  sand  and 
produce  on  an  average  from  ten  to  twelve  melons  each.     No 


GAZETTEER  237 

assessment  is  charged,  and  the  only  expense  involved  in  their  CHAP  XV. 
cultivation  is  the  cost  of  manure.     To  the  necessity  of  procur-     Sidhout 
ing  this  in  large  quantities   is  due  the  fact  that  Cuddapah       Taluk. 

melons  are  only  grown  in  the  neighbourhood  of  big  villages  

or  towns. 

Vontimitta,  the  largest  village  in  the  taluk,  is  situated  about  Vomimitta. 
eight  miles  south-east  of  Sidhout  on  the  main  road  to 
Cuddapah.  The  railway  station  is  three-quarters  of  a  mile  to 
the  east  of  the  village.  Its  population,  inclusive  of  outlying 
hamlets,  is  4,309.  It  contains  a  travellers'  bungalow  in  charge 
of  the  Forest  Department,  two  local  fund  choultries,  a  post 
office  and  a  police  station.  The  Vontimitta  tank,  which  is  the 
largest  in  the  taluk,  lies  between  the  railway  line  and  the  road, 
the  latter  passing  over  the  bund.  It  has  an  excellent  catchment 
area  and  a  large  ayacut  of  over  a  thousand  acres. 

The  village  is  remarkable  for  its  temple  of  Kothandarama- 
swami,  one  of  the  largest  in  these  parts.  It  has  three  gopurams, 
of  which  the  central  and  loftiest  is  adorned  with  carved  figures, 
the  others  being  plain.  Within  the  courtyard  are  two  stone 
tnantapams,  a  large  one  with  thirty-two  pillars  and  a  smaller 
with  fourteen.  The  former  is  the  place  where  the  utsava 
vigrahams  are  decorated  during  festivals,  and  the  latter  is  the 
kalydna  mantapam  where  on  the  day  preceding  the  car-festival 
the  ceremony  of  the  god's  marriage  with  Sita  is  performed. 
The  great  annual  festival  is  conducted  with  much  splendour 
for  nine  days  during  April  and  attracts  some  thousands  of 
people.  The  temple  was  quite  recently  declared  a  protected 
monument  under  the  Monuments  Preservation  Act  of  1904.^ 
Two  inscriptions  within  the  temple  record  grants  made  for  its 
benefit  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Sadasiva  of  the  Vijaya- 
nagar  dynasty,  of  which  one,  dated  S.S.  1477  (A. D.  1554-55), 
consisted  of  three  villages  of  the  Pottapi  s'lma  and  fifty  kutitas 
of  land  under  the  Vontimitta  tank,  the  donor  being  the 
Emperor  himself. 

Madhavaram,  population  1,915,  is  situated  on  the  Pottapi-  j^j^j^a 
Vontimitta  road  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Penner,  about  two  varam. 
miles  west  of  its  confluence  with  the  Che3^yer.  About  a  mile 
beyond  Madhavaram  the  road  turns  sharply  to  the  west  and 
passes  over  an  outlying  spur  of  the  Palkondas  into  the  Vonti- 
mitta valley.  The  distance  to  Vontimitta  railway  station  is 
about  ten  miles.  The  village  contains  a  travellers'  bungalow 
and  four  choultries  ;  one  of  the  latter,  situated  in  the  hamlet  of 
Boyanapalle,  is  maintained  by  the  Local  Fund  Department. 
The  village  contains  numerous  tiled  houses,  with  upper  stories. 

'  See  Fort  St.   George  Gazette  of  May  26,  1914,  page  769. 


238 


CUDDAPAH 


Kuriigunta- 
palle. 


CHAP.  XV.   Its  prosperity  is  principally  clue  to  the  silk-weaving  industry. 

SiDHouT      About  three-quarters  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  weaving 

Taluk.       caste  of  the  Padma  Sales  and  are  the  most  skilful  silk-weavers 

in  the  district.^     But  they  are  said  to  be  thriftless  and  addicted 

to  drink,  and  the  capitalists  who  employ  them  were,  on  this 
account,  recently  agitating  for  the  removal  of  the  liquor  shops. 
A  temple  of  Bhavanarayanaswami,  or  "Bhavana  Rushi," 
the  caste  god  of  the  Padma  Sales,  is  in  course  of  construction. 
It  is  designed  on  a  grand  scale  and  will  be  a  feature  of  the 
place  when  completed. 

Kuruguntapallc  lies  two  and  a  half  miles  south-east  of 
Madhavaram  and  the  same  distance  south-west  of  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Penner  and  the  Cheyyer.  Its  nearest  railway 
station  is  Vontimitta,  twelve  miles  to  the  west.  In  point  of 
size  the  village  ranks  third  in  the  taluk,  containing  a  population 
of  3.395-  Being  near  the  road  connecting  Vontimitta  with  the 
principal  villages  of  the  Cheyyer  valley  in  Pullampet  taluk  it  is 
favourably  situated  for  local  trade.  The  village  contains  a 
large  number  of  Setti  Balijas  who  are  skilful  weavers  as  well 
as  agriculturists. 

Kotapad.  KotapSd,  population  1,390,  lies  about  two  miles  north  of 

Madhavaram  and  half  a  mile  west  of  the  Penner.  Its  nearest 
railway  station  is  Vontimitta,  about  nine  miles  to  the  south- 
west. The  village  contains  a  local  fund  choultry.  Tradition 
says  that  the  site  of  the  present  village  was  once  occupied  by  a 
fort  and  a  peta,  the  name  of  the  latter  being  Basannagadda, 
and  that  on  their  destruction  many  hundreds  of  years  ago  the 
place  came  to  be  known  as  Kotapad  or  "  ruined  fort."  No 
traces  of  any  fort  are  to  be  seen  at  the  present  day. 

About  two  miles  from  the  village_  is  a  fenced  enclosure 
with  a  wooden  gateway,  known  as  Avula  male,  where  sacred 
cattle  were  kept.  An  dvitla  pariipu  ^  used  to  be  performed 
periodically  by  a  sub-sect  of  kdpus  called  Rayas,  who  formerly 
lived  in  Kotapad.  Near  the  enclosure  are  four  stones  contain- 
ing representations  of  cattle  and  vigrahams  of  Krishna  and 
Siva.  Against  each  bull  and  cow  so  portrayed  is  written  its 
name,  such  as,  Lempalapu  Avu,  PallaboUi  Eddu  and  so  forth. 
Near  the  gate  is  a  stone  inscription  recording  that  in  the  year 
S.S.  1500,  i.e.,  A.D.  1578,  in  the  time  of  Kotapoti  Bhakki  Reddi, 
Karnam  Veerappa  and  others,  six  kiintas  of  dry  land  and  half  a 
y^i/«/a  of  wet  land  were  assigned  by  one  Inge  Bheema  Reddi 
for  the  performance  of  the  dvida  parupu.  The  sacred  cattle 
were  under  the  special  protection  of  the  Raya  Kdpus.     They 

^  See  Chapter  VI  —  "  Silk-weaving." 
*  Cow- worship.     See  under  Chilakampalle,  Pulivendla  taluk. 


GAZETTEER  •  239 

were  never  milked  or  used  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  after  cHAP.  XV. 
death  they  were  buried  and  not  given  to  the  Madigas  like  other     sidhout 
cattle  for  the  sake  of  their  skins.     The  sacred  cattle  became      Taluk. 

extinct  many  years  ago,  and  the  family  who  protected  them  no  

longer  lives  at  Kotapad.  Some  descendants  of  these  Kapus 
are  said  to  reside  at  Upparapalle,  a  hamlet  of  Pattapurayi  in 
thisjaluk. 

Obulam,  with  a  population  of  2,964,  is  situated  about  two  Obulam. 
miles  north  of  the  Penner,  some  five  miles  below  its  confluence 
with  the  Chej^yer.  It  is  the  principal  village  in  the  valley 
which  bears  its  name,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  a  firka 
revenue  inspector  and  a  sub-inspector  of  police.  It  has  eleven 
hamlets  and  its  boundaries  extend  east  and  west  to  the  hills 
which  enclose  the  valley.  The  village  itself  is  in  the  centre 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tummala  vanka.  Nothing  is  known 
of  its  history,  but  it  is  believed  by  its  inhabitants  to  have  been  a 
place  of  great  importance  "  when  Boyas  ruled  the  country." 

The  Veligonda  hills  to  the  east  of  the  village  are  locally 
known  as  the  Mallemkondas  and  are  held  in  great  sanctity  on 
account  of  their  perennial  springs  and  wooded  hollows,  which 
are  still  thought  to  be  the  abode  of  rishis.  Chief  among 
such  picturesque  spots  is  the  Velpula  kona  wherein  is  the 
temple  of  Mallemkondayyaswami.  Within  this  hollow  are 
seven  pools  of  water,  the  most  sacred  of  which  is  the  Moksha- 
gundam  to  which  a  flight  of  steps  leads  down  from  the  temple. 
Every  visitor  to  the  temple  first  bathes  in  this  pool  before 
worshipping  the  god.  The  principal  tank  in  the  village  is 
called  Musalnayani  cheruvu  and  is  said  to  have  been  con- 
structed in  the  17th  century  by  a  minister  of  the  Matli  rajas 
named  Musalnayadu. 

The  wells  of  the  village  are  impregnated  with  guineaworm, 
and  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  suffer  from  the 
disease- 

Kondur  is  situated  in  the  Sagiler  valley  about  a  mile  east  Kondur. 
of  the  road  to  Badvel  and  eleven  miles  north  of  Sidhout.  It 
contains  a  police  station,  a  local  fund  choultry  and  a  travel- 
lers' bungalow.  The  latter,  which  belongs  to  the  Forest 
Department,  is  on  the  roadside  and  makes  a  convenient  half- 
way house  between  Sidhout  and  Badvel.  The  boundary  of 
the  village  extends  westwards  as  far  as  the  Lanka millais, 
wherein  is  a  temple  of  Venugopalaswami.  This  is  held  in 
great  sanctity  and  often  visited  from  long  distances  for  the 
purpose  of  fulfilling  vows, 

Yappirala  lies  on  th_e  north  bank  of  the  Penner  some  four  Vap^niaia. 
miles    south-east    of    Obulam    and    twenty-five    miles    east 


240 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

SiDHOUT 

Taluk. 


Gangaperur. 


pullampet 
Taluk. 


of  Sidhout.  It  has  a  population  of_  1,261  and  is  the  only 
village  of  any  importance  in  the  Obulam  valley  south  of 
Obulam.  It  is  a  recognized  halting-place  for  travellers  and 
merchants  passing  to  and  from  Kaluvaya  in  the  Nellore 
district.  About  sixteen  miles  of  the  journey  from  Vontimitta 
to  Kaluvaya  has  to  be  performed  along  the  sandy  river-bed  as 
there  is  no  other  road  between  Madhavaram  and  Somaslla ; 
consequently  merchandise  by  this  route  is  generally  conveyed 
by  pack-bullocks.  The  panchalingdlakdna  in  the  Veligondas 
to  the  east  of  the  village  is  a  place  of  some  religious  import- 
ance and  attracts  numerous  devotees.  Spotted  deer  are 
sometimes  to  be  seen  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  near  this  village. 

Gangaperur,  population  1,074,  is  situated  three  miles  north 
of  Vontimitta  near  the  road  to  Sidhiout,  and  about  a  mile 
south  of  the  Penner.  In  the  name  of  the  village  some  profess 
to  trace  the  influence  of  the  early  Ganga  dynasty  in  these 
parts  ;  but  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  names  of  Ganga- 
perur and  its  neighbour  Pennaperiir  merely  serve  to  mark  the 
old  association  in  the  popular  mind  between  the  Penner  and 
the  Ganges.  In  connection  with  the  temple  of  Narasimha- 
swami  in  this  village  a  curious  story  of  Munro  is  told  by  the 
people  to  this  day.  The  Collector  had  come  to  the  village  for 
the  purpose  of  examining  the  inam  tenures.  He  confirmed 
the  village  service  and  artizan  inams  but  declined  to  allow 
the  inam  granted  for  the  worship  of  Narasimhaswami.  At 
length  in  response  to  the  earnest  representations  of  the 
karnam,  Munro  declared  that  he  would  confirm  the  inam  if 
he  should  see  the  god  in  person.  The  karnam,  therefore, 
prayed  the  god  to  appear  to  the  Collector,  in  order  that  the 
inam  might  not  be  resumed.  In  the  evening  Munro  hearing 
the  sound  of  a  galloping  horse  came  out  of  his  tent,  and  saw 
the  god  ride  past  on  a  white  horse.  He  was  so  pleased  at  the 
sight  that  he  at  once  confirmed  the  inam. 

A  copper-plate  inscription  dated  S.S.  1699  (A.D.  1777) 
records  the  grant  of  some  land  for  the  upkeep  of  a  mosque  in 
the  hamlet  of  Mukundapuram.  Among  other  items  the  grant 
speaks  of  a  contribution  of  grain  for  feeding  the  partridges 
in  the  mosque. 

PULLAMPET  TALUK. 

PuUampet  is  the  southernmost  of  the  three  taluks  forming 
the  eastern  division  and,  like  Sidhout,  is  flanked  on  the  east 
and  west  by  the  great  hill  ranges  of  the  Veligondas  and 
Palkondas  or  Seshachalams.  These  two  ranges  coalesce  in 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  taluk  and  terminate  a  little  to 
the  west  at  the  sacred  hill  of  Tirupati.     About  fifteen  miles 


GAZETTEER  24I 

north  of  Renigunta  a  narrow  gap  in  the  hills  leads  the  railway  CHAP.  XV 
line    from    the   Chendragiri    taluk    into   that    of   Pullampet,    Pullampet 
whence  it  proceeds  in  a  north-westerly  direction  till  it  enters      Taluk. 
the  Sidhout  taluk  a  few  miles  north  of  Nandalur.     The  taluk 
is  drained  by  the  Cheyyer  which   forces  its  way  through  a 
winding  gorge  in  the  Seshachalams  about  sixteen  miles  south- 
west of  Rajampet  and  turning  northwards  near  Tangatur  enters 
the  Sidhout  taluk  about  three  miles  south  of  its  junction  with 
the  Penner.     Its  only  important  tributaries  in  this  taluk  are 
the  PuUangi  and  the  Gunjana  which  join  it  from  the  south. 

The  area  of  Pullampet  taluk  is  979  square  miles  and  it 
contains  a  population  of  145,230,  which  exceeds  that  of  any 
other  taluk  in  the  district,  though  in  point  of  density  it  ranks 
but  sixth.  It  has  a  better  rainfall  than  the  rest  of  the  district, 
and  its  irrigation  facilities  are  excellent.  The  Cheyyer  river 
channels  below  Nandalur  are  as  good  as  any  in  the  district, 
and  there  is  no  scarcity  of  large  tanks  though  there  is  none 
to  equal  those  at  Porumamilla  or  Badvel.  Of  these  may  be 
mentioned  the  tanks  at  Pedda  Orampad,  Poli,  Cherlopalle 
and  Penagalur  each  of  which  irrigates  an  ayacut  of  over  a 
thousand  acres.  The  soils  of  the  taluk  call  for  no  particular 
notice ;  generally  speaking,  the  nearer  the  rivers  the  better 
the  soils.  The  red  ferruginous  series  largely  predominates, 
as  in  the  rest  of  the  division. 

The  taluk  is  well  provided  with  communications.  There  are 
eight  railway  stations  within  its  limits  and  the  more  important 
of  these  are  connected  by  metalled  roads  with  the  principal 
villages  of  the  interior,  which  lie  to  the  east  of  the  railway  line. 

The  following  places  in  the  taluk  deserve  notice  : — 

Rajampet,  with  a  population  of  14,649,  is  the  fourth  largest  Rajampet. 
town  in  the  district.  About  twenty-five  years  ago  it  svas 
made  the  headquarters  of  the  taluk  in  preference  to  Pullam- 
pet. The  town,  which  is  a  mile  from  the  railway  station, 
contains  a  travellers'  bungalow,  a  combined  post  and  tele- 
graph office  and  all  the  offices  usual  to  a  taluk  headquarters 
except  the  Sub-Registrar's  office  which  is  still  located  at 
Pullampet.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pullangi 
which  flows  into  the  Cheyyer  four  miles  further  north.  On 
the  other  bank  of  the  stream,  opposite  the  town,  is  a  hill 
called  Kondur  Tippa  which  bears  traces  of  old  fortifications. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  an  outpost  of  some  ruling  chiefs,  now 
spoken  of  as  the  Kondur  rajas,  who  founded  the  adjoining 
town  and  called  it  Rajampet. 

Historically  there  is  nothing  to  relate   of  Rajampet.     Its 
importance  is  of  modern  origin  and  dates  from  the  opening 
31 


242  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  XV.  of  the  Madras   Railway  some  fifty    years  ago,   by  which   it 

PuLLAMPET  received  a  great  stimulus   to  trade  and  rapidly  became  the 

Taluk.       principal  centre  of  distribution  not  only  for  Pullampet  but  for 

much  of  Sidhout  and  Rayachoti  taluks.     The  transfer  of  the 

taluk  office  to  Rajampet  increased  its  importance,  and  it  was 
constituted  a  union  in  l888.  It  will  be  made  the  headquarters 
of  the  division  when  the  Sub-Collector's  bungalow  and  office, 
now  under  construction,  are  completed. 

A  large  weekly  market  is  held  every  Wednesday.  Weav- 
ing is  the  only  industry  that  provides  occupation  to  any 
considerable  section  of  the  population.  Petty  shopkeepers 
and  traders,  large  and  small,  constitute  the  majority.  The 
proportion  of  Musalmans  is  lower  in  Rajampet  than  any  other 
town  in  the  district. 
Pullampet.  Pullampct,  formerly  the  taluk    headquarters,    is    situated 

about  seven  miles  south-east  of  Rajampet  and  three  miles  from 
Reddipalle  railway  station.  It  has  a  population  of  2,274  and 
contains  a  local  fund  travellers'  bungalow,  a  Sub-Registrar's 
office  and  a  police  station.  There  is  also  a  choultry  on  the 
Madras  road.  A  metalled  road  branches  from  the  main  road  at 
Pullampet  and  passes  over  the  low  hills  eastwards  to  Chitvel 
in  the  Gunjana  valley.  It  is  crossed  by  the  Pullangi  close  to 
Pullampet,  which  probably  derives  its  name  from  this  river. 

The  weavers  of  Pullampet  have  a  reputation  for  excellent 
workmanship.  They  belong  to  the  Sale  caste,  the  most  skilful 
•  weavers  in  the  district.  There  are  three  subdivisions  of  this 
caste  in  these  parts,  namely,  the  Padma  Sales,  Pattu  Sales  and 
Kanna  Sales.  Neither  class  will  take  food  with  the  members 
of  another  and  intermarriage  is  of  course  prohibited.  The  two 
first-named  wear  the  sacred  thread.  They  are  all  flesh-eaters 
and  by  no  means  teetotalers.  Fine  white  turbans  and  white 
or  coloured  cloths  for  men's  wear  are  woven  by  the  Sales  of 
Pullampet,  who  specialize  in  the  manufacture  of  gold  and  silver 
embroidery  with  which  these  are  so  often  embellished. 
No  better  embroidery  of  the  kind  is  made  in  the  district. 

The  temple  of  Anjaneyaswami  at  Pullampet  was  erected 
by  a  Tahsildar  of  the  taluk   about  fifty  years  ago.     There  is 
also  a  Siva  temple  of  more  recent  construction. 
^'^°  ■  Chitvel,  a    union  and    the  headquarters  of     the     Deputy 

Tahsildar's  division,  is  situated  on  the  Gunjana  about  twelve 
miles  east  of  Pullampet.  Besides  the  direct  road  to  Pullampet, 
a  metalled  road  connects  Chitvel  with  Kodur  on  the  south  and 
joins  the  Rajampet-Tangatur  road  on  the  north  near  Narayana- 
nellur.  Another  road  leads  eastwards  from  Chitvel  over  the 
Veligondas  by  the  Rapur  ghat  to  Nellore  district. 


GAZETTEER 


243 


Besides  the  office  of  the  Deputy  Tahsildar  and  Sub- 
Magistrate  the  village  contains  a  Sub-Registrar's  office  and  a 
police  station.  There  was  formerly  a  travellers'  bungalow 
here,  but  it  was  demolished  some  years  ago  and  it  is  proposed 
to  construct  a  new  one.  The  Lutheran  Mission  has  an  out- 
station  at  Chitvel  and  a  small  church  near  which  is  a  mango 
tope  where  tents  can  be  pitched. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  l8th  century  Chitvel  became  the 
headquarters  of  the  powerful  family  of  Matli  or  Matla  princes 
whose  authority  once  extended  over  the  whole  of  the  eastern 
division  of  the  district.  Though  the  Matli  family  are  spoken 
of  by  Munro  as  "  poligars  of  Chitvel  "  the  term  is  really  a 
misnomer.  There  were  no  poligars  in  this  part  of  the  district, 
and  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  political  ascendancy  of  the 
Matli  princes  have  nothing  in  common  with  the  rise  of  the 
poligars  in  Pulivendla  and  Rayachoti  taluks.  They  ruled  the 
Pottapi-nadu  under  the  Vijayanagar  Emperors  and  were  thus 
the  political  successors  of  the  Telugu  Chodas  who  had  held 
the  same  position  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Cholas  till  the 
latter  part  of  the  13th  century.  The  removal  of  their  head- 
quarters to  Chitvel  in  the  reign  of  Abdul  Nabi  Khan,  the  most 
energetic  of  the  Nawabs  of  Cuddapah,  marks  the  beginning 
of  their  decline,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  l8th  century  their 
authority  certainly  did  not  extend  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Pullampet  taluk.  Their  political  influence  was  further  under- 
mined by  Tipu  and  finally  extinguished  by  Munro.  For 
many  years  after  the  British  took  possession  of  the  country 
Chitvel  remained  the  headquarters  of  a  '  district '  (Le.  taluk), 
and  the  exact  date  of  the  transfer  from  Chitvel  to  Pullampet 
is  not  now  ascertainable. 

Turmeric  is  a  favourite  garden  crop  in  Chitvel  and  other 
places  in  the  Gunjana  valley.  The  raw  product  is  sent  to 
Cuddapah  where  the  powder  is  extracted  by  motive  power  and 
exported  to  various  parts  of  India. 

Pottapi,  population  1,453,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Cheyyer,  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  Rajampet.  It  is  a 
pleasant  village  and  full  of  historical  interest.  The  Telugu 
Chodas  established  themselves  here  about  A.D.  1000,  and 
}*ottapi  remained  the  headquarters  of  this  part  of  the  country 
under  various  dynasties  for  about  seven  hundred  years.  There 
are  several  old  inscriptions,  some  of  which  have  not  been 
deciphered,  in  the  temples  of  Mulastaneswaraswami  and 
Gopalaswami.  Their  systematic  investigation  would  probably 
add  to  our  knowledge  of  the  early  history  of  these  parts. 
An  inscription  in  the  first-named  temple  appears  to  record  its 


CHAP.  XV. 

puli  ■  mpet 
Taluk. 


Pottapi. 


244  CUDDAPAH 

CHAP.  XV.    foundation  in  S.S,  1 1 15  or  A.D.  I193.     In  the  other  temple  are 

PuLLAMPET  two  inscriptions  one  of  which  states  that  the  temple  was  built 

Taluk.       in  S.S.  1459  by  a  Matli  prince  named  Anantaramarazu.     The 

date  indicates  that  this  was  Matla  Ananta,  the  author  of  the 

Telugu  poem  Kakusthavijayamu.^  The  other  inscription 
records  that  in  S.S.  1643  or  A.D.  1721  three  kuntas  of  wet 
land  were  granted  to  the  temple  by  Kumara  Ananta  Raja, 
another  member  of  the  same  family. 

Of  the  extensive  fort  the  foundations  are  now  alone 
visible,  and  the  broad  moat  is  under  cultivation.  The 
gardens  between  the  village  and  the  Cheyyer,  irrigated  by 
river  channels,  lend  the  place  a  picturesque  appearance. 

There  is  a  good  camping  ground  in  a  tope  near  the  river 
about  half  a  mile  north-east  of  the  village. 
Kodur.  Kodur,  is  a  large  village  with  numerous  hamlets  and  an 

inclusive  population  of  6,592.  It  is  situated  on  the  Gunjana 
river  a  mile  north-east  of  the  railway  station  of  the  same  name 
and  contains  a  travellers'  bungalow  belonging  to  the  Forest 
Department.  The  making  of  bamboo  cots,  baskets,  tatties 
and  the  like,  material  for  which  is  obtainable  from  the  adjoin- 
ing forests,  constitutes  the  only  important  industry  in  the 
place.  A  metalled  road  following  the  course  of  the  Gunjana 
river  connects  Kodur  with  the  principal  villages  of  the  Chitvel 
valley,  exports  from  which  are  generally  entrained  at  the 
Kodur  railway  station,  while  its  comparative  proximity  to 
Madras  gives  it  some  advantage  over  Rajampet  in  the  distri- 
bution over  the  same  area  of  rail-borne  goods  from  the  south 
of  the  Presidency.  Some  years  ago  a  Marwari  from  the 
Bombay  Presidency  established  a  power-driven  factory  for  the 
cleaning  of  turmeric  preparatory  to  its  export  to  the  north  of 
India,  but  being  found  unremunerative  it  was  closed  about  two 
years  ago;  possibly  it  was  unable  to  compete  with  the  saffron 
mill  at  Cuddapah. 

There  is  a  valuable  red  sanders  plantation  at  Kodur  dating 
from  1865,  particulars  of  which  have  already  been  given. - 
The  Forest  Department  also  maintains  a  fuel  depot  which 
was  established  in  1871  as  well  as  a  large  mango  plantation. 

A  branch  of  the  German  Lutheran  Mission  was  established 
at  Kodur  about  thirty  years  ago.  Some  account  of  its  activities 
will  be  found  elsewhere.'  The  Mission  Church  at  Kodur  was 
built  in  1887.  The  Leper  Asylum  maintained  by  the  Mission 
at  Krupapalle  lies  about  a  mile  and  a  half  south-east  of  Kodur. 

A  peculiar  custom  obtains  in  Kodur  among  sudra  castes. 
When    a   child   falls   ill   the  toe-ring   is   removed    from  the 

1  See  Chapter  II.  2  See  Chapter  V.  »  gee  Chapter  III. 


GAZETTEER  245 

mother's  left  foot  and  tied   round   the    child's  neck    with  an    CHAP.  XV. 
indigo-coloured  thread  with  the  object  of  restoring  it  to  health.    Pullampet 
It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  the  pujari  who  conducts  the       Taluk. 
worship  of  Ankalamma,  the  village   goddess,  is  a   woman  ;  a 
peculiarity  of  which  there  appears  to  be  no  other  example  in 
the  district. 

Scttigunta  is  the  southernmost  village  of  the  taluk.  Its  Settigunu 
limits  extend  northwards  to  within  two  or  three  miles  of  Kodur 
railway  station,  so  that  its  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
ten  miles.  Its  eastern  and  western  boundaries  are  the  Veli- 
gondas  and  the  Seshachalam  hills.  The  "  casba  "  is  situated 
near  the  Settigunta  railway  station.  The  village,  which  con- 
tains many  hamlets,  has  a  total  population  of  5,431. 

It  is  supposed  to  be  named  after  the  big  tank  on  its  western 
side,  which,  tradition  says,  was  built  by  a  Setti  or  Linga  Balija. 
The  tank  occupies  a  fine  natural  position  in  the  centre  of  the 
valley  and  receives  the  water  of  hill  streams  from  both  ranges, 
but  its  utility  is  somewhat  impaired  by  the  railway  line 
which  cuts  off  a  portion  of  the  bed  on  the  east. 

As  at  Kodur,  the  adjoining  forests  supply  material  for  the 
making  of  cots,  baskets,  tatties  and  mats.  This  is  particularly 
the  occupation  of  a  caste  of  people  called  Medaravandlu, 
They  claim  to  be  Balijas,  but  the  latter  do  not  admit  them  to 
social  equality,  A  special  industry  has  arisen  at  Settigunta 
in  the  making  of  wooden  figures  out  of  the  heartwood  of  the 
red  Sanders  tree,  for  which  there  is  a  considerable  demand 
among  pilgrims  to  Tirupati.^ 

A  few  miles  south  of  Settigunta  are  the  Balapalle  fuel 
reserves.  They  are  in  a  very  flourishing  condition  and  under 
the  present  system  of  working  are  expected  to  afford  an 
unfailing  supply  of  fuel. 

Nandalar  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the Cheyyer  about  Nandalur. 
six  miles  north  of  Rajampet.  It  is  a  mile  south-east  of  the 
railway  station  which  lies  in  Nagireddipalle  village.  As  the 
latter  forms  part  of  the  Nandalur  union  the  two  villages  may 
be  conveniently  dealt  with  together.  They  contain  in  the 
aggregate  a  population  of  4,322.  The  Union  office.  District 
Munsif's  Court,  travellers'  bungalow,  post  office  and  office  of 
the  Sub-Assistant  Inspector  of  Schools  are  all  situated  in 
Nagireddipalle,  as  is  also  the  railway  dispensary.  The  rail- 
way line  crosses  the  Cheyyer  about  half  a  mile  south  of  the 
station.  The  bridge,  which  was  reconstructed  after  the 
disaster  of  1870,"  consists  of  forty-six  openings  of  64  feet  span 
each,  with  wrought  iron-plate  girders  over  stone  and  cast-iron 

1  See  Chapters  V  and  VI.  «  See  Chapter  VII. 


246 


CUDDAPAH 


CHAP.  XV. 

pullampet 
Taluk. 


Pedda 
Oram  pad, 
Chinna 
Orampad. 


cylinder  piers.  The  latter  are  of  immense  girth  and  very 
deeply  imbedded  in  the  river.  The  bridge  has  successfully 
withstood  some  very  heavy  floods,  notably  those  of  1874,  and 
1903.1 

The  wet  lands  of  Nandalur  are  irrigated  by  river  channels 
from  the  Cheyyer  and  by  the  Kannekala  tank  which  is  also 
river-fed.  The  tank  is  rather  unfavourably  affected  by  the 
railway  but  in  good  years  it  affords  an  excellent  supply  to  its 
entire  ayacut.  "  Kannekala  cheruvu  "  means  "  the  tank  of  the 
maidens,"  and  tradition  relates  that  seven  virgins  were  sacri- 
ficed at  the  time  of  its  construction  to  ensure  that  it  would 
never  breach.  Nowadays  when  the  tank  surpluses  Brahman 
matrons  go  to  the  bund  of  an  evening  and  make  offerings  to 
the  shades  of  the  departed  maidens. 

The  temple  of  Saumyanathaswami  at  Nandalur  is  of 
immense  antiquity  and  was  formerly  held  in  great  repute.  It 
contains  on  its  walls  and  elsewhere  no  less  than  fifty-four 
inscriptions  dating  from  the  Ilth  century  to  Vijayanagar 
times,  from  which  much  information  of  historical  value  has 
been  gleaned.  At  the  present  day  the  temple  is  unfortunately 
somewhat  neglected. 

Nandalur  contains  one  of  the  only  two  Board  lower  second- 
ary schools  in  the  district,  and  a  Government  Muhammadan 
school. 

Pedda  Orampad  and  Chinna  Orampad  are  two  villages 
situated  on  the  north  and  south  respectively  of  the  great  Pedda 
Orampad  tank.  Chinna  Orampad  lies  on  the  Madras  road 
about  a  mile  north-east  of  the  Orampad  railway  station,  and 
despite  its  name,  is  the  larger  of  the  two  villages,  containing  a 
population  of  4,730,  while  Pedda  Orampad  has  but  3,294 
inhabitants.  The  local  tradition  runs  that  these  villages  were 
founded  about  two  hundred  years  ago  on  the  site  of  a  town 
called  Bukkapatnam  which  had  been  founded  by  the  Vijaya- 
nagar Emperor  Bukka  and  subsequently  destroyed  by  the 
Musalmans.  The  story  is  not  supported  by  history,  so  far  as  is 
yet  known. 

The  tank  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  taluk  and  irrigates 
some  half  a  dozen  villages.  It  is  fed  by  a  hill  stream  from 
the  Seshachalams  called  Pamaleru  and  the  surplus  water 
flows  into  the  Pullangi.  Part  of  the  bund  is  formed  by  the 
hillock  known  as  Duddine  Tippa.  In  the  foreshore  of  the  tank 
is  a  hamlet  of  fishermen  called  Bestapalle,  all  the  inhabitants 
of  which  belong  to  the  Besta  caste  of  fishermen,  and  subsist 
solely  on  their  hereditary  occupation. 

i  See  Chapter  Vlll, 


GAZETTEER 


247 


Pcnagalur,  population  2,196,  is  situated  near  the  right  bank  cHAP.  XV 
of  the  Cheyyer  about  twelve  miles  north-east  of  Rajampet.  It  Pullampet 
contains  a  large  tank  with  an  ayacut  of  over  a  thousand  acres.       Taluk. 

which  irrigates   nearly  all  the  land   in  the  village.     In    the         

course  of  years  the  tank  has  silted  up  to  a  considerable  extent,  Penagalur. 

but  its  supply  has  recently  been  improved  by  the  renewal  of  a 

feeder  channel  from  the  Cheyyer.     The  tank  is  also  known  as 

Kannekala  cheruvu,  and  the  name  is  accounted  for  by  a  variant 

of  the  story  already  given  in  connection  with  the  Nandalur 

tank,  according  to  which  the  Penagalur  tank  actually  breached 

in  seven  places  the  year  after  its  construction  and,  in  obedience 

to  the  god  GOpalaswami  whose  temple  is  near  the  bund,  the 

seven  daughters  of  the  man  who  had  built  the  tank  sat  one  in 

each  of  the  breaches,  which  were  then   filled  up  ;  since  when 

the  tank  has  never  breached  again. 

Reference  has  already  been  made^  to  an  ancient  grant  of 
some  lands  of  Perungandura  (Penagalur)  to  Brahmans  which 
was  confirmed  by  the  Telugu  Choda  chief  Manumasiddhi  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  13th  century.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
part  of  the  village  is  still  held  by  Brahman  shrotriemdars  with 
whom  is  a  copper-plate  showing  that  the  grant  was  again 
renewed  in  S.S.  1493,  i.e.,  A.D.  1 571  by  Tirumalaraja,  a  chief 
of  the  Matli  family.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  grantees 
obtained  this  confirmation  for  fear  that  their  rights  might 
be  called  in  question  subsequently  to  the  downfall  of  the 
Vijayanagar  Empire,  which  had  occurred  but  six  years  before 
at  the  battle  of  Talikota. 

Tangatur,  population  1,665,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  Tangatsr. 
the  Cheyyer  where  the  river  turns  north  towards  Sidhout  taluk. 
It  is  a  place  of  some  historical  interest.  An  inscription  near 
the  ruined  temple  of  Siddheswaraswami,  dated  S.S.  1257  (A.D. 
131 5)  mentions  the  Kakatlya  king  Prataparudra,  This  shows 
that  his  authority  in  these  parts  was  still  recognized  in  spite  of 
the  Musalman  invasion  of  the  Deccan  six  years  earlier.  His 
deposition  and  removal  to  Delhi  did  not  in  fact  take  place  till 
ten  years  later,  in  A.D.  1325. 

Some  time  in  the  17th  century  the  Matli  princes  made 
Tangatur  the  headquarters  of  one  of  their  administrative 
divisions  in  place  of  Pottapi. 

^  See  Chapter  II. 


N  D  E  X 


Abbavaram,  219. 

Abdul  Alam  Khan,  44,  235, 

Abdul  Nabhi  Khan,  40,  41,  42,  193. 

Abdul  Syed  Khan,    189. 

Abkarj,  163. 

Accidents  on  railways,  123. 

Achyuta,  36,  186. 

Adina  cordifolia,  99. 

Adinimmayapalle,  184. 

Aditya,  i,  30. 

Administration  of  justice,  166. 

Ad5ni,  46,  148. 

Agudur,  22. 

Agriculture,  108  ;  and  irrigation,  72. 

Agriculturists,  economic  condition 
of,  87. 

Agudur,  22. 

Akkadevatula  Konda,  225. 

Akkisettipalle  tank,  87. 

Albizzia  amara,  99 ;  odoratissima, 
99. 

Ali  Khan,  Dost,  41. 

Alireddipalle,  209, 

Allah-ud-din,  35. 

Aluminium,  112. 

Amada,  117. 

Ambadeva,  34,  231. 

Amelapalle,  memorial  stones  at,  25. 

Ammavaru  or  Lakshmi,  16. 

Amruta,  184. 

Amusements,  62. 

Ananda  Ranga  Pillai,  the  private 
diary  of,  97. 

Ananta  Matla,  39,  244. 

Anantarajupuram,  39. 

Anantaramaraju,  235,  244  ;  con- 
structs the  Badvel  tank,  39. 

Andhra  dominions,  28. 

Animela,  29,  207. 

Anjaneya.  184. 

Anjaneyaswami  temple,  179. 

Ankalamma,  245. 

Anogeissus  latjfolia,  99,  100. 

32 


Anthrams,  65. 

x^rinamma,  temple  of,  224, 

Arrack,  163. 

Arts  and  industries,  textile,  108. 

Ashbeds,  11,   12. 

Asoka,  26. 

Asophs,  45. 

Athirala,  34. 

Atlantia  monophylia,  99. 

Aurangzebe,  38,  148. 

Avenues,  120. 

Avula  parupu  or  cow  worship,   314, 

238. 
Ayodhya  or  Oudh,  26. 


B 


Babool  tree,  3,  20,  100. 

Baday  Miah,  42. 

Badvel,  30,  38  ;  construction  of  its 
tank,  81  ;  fuel  working  circle, 
102  ;  breach  of  its  tank,  137  ;  dis- 
pensary at,  142  ;  district  munsif's 
court  at,  167  ;  Sub-Registrar's 
office  at,  168  ;  descriptive  note  of, 
227. 

Badvel  taluk,  2,  4,  226. 

Baggira,  16. 

Bahudanadi,  3,  80,  201. 

Bainapalle  fuel  working  circle,  102. 

Balanadar,  Monsignor,  J.,  56. 

Balapalle,  4,  121  ;  fuel  working 
circle,  102  :  fuel  reserve,  100,  loi, 

245. 
Balapanur,  214. 

Balavanta  Rao,  44. 

Balijas,  66,  67  :  stone  carverK,  112. 

Bamboos,  105. 

Bunas,  27,  28 

Bandaru,  94. 

Banganapalle  group  of  quarzites,  14. 

Banyan  tree,  21. 

Bapoji  Nayakkan,  42, 

Baramahal,  41. 

Baredu,  116. 


250 


INDEX 


Basannagadda,  238. 

Basavappa  Nayudu,  213. 

Baskara,  son  of  Bukka  I,  construc- 
tor of  the  Porumamilla  tank,  35. 

Bastar  State,  28. 

Bears,  22. 

Beddome,  Colonel,  100,  loi. 

Beggars,  71. 

Bellary,  38. 

Bengal  gram,  78. 

Bentinck,  Lord  William,  152. 

Bestapalle,  247. 

Betel  vines,  75. 

BezwadaGuntakal  railway  line,  122. 

Bhatrazus,  71. 

Bhavanarayanaswami  temple,  238. 

Bhima  Maharaja  kin?  of  the  Vaid- 
umbas,  30. 

Bh5gandani  bhavi,  236." 

Bhusakti,  64. 

Bijapur,   37. 

Binga  bendu,  16. 

Blackbuck,  23, 

Black    cotton    country,    agricultural 
practices  peculiar  to,  77. 

Black  cotton  soil,  6. 

Blankets,   no. 

Bommalatam,  63. 

Bommanapalle,  191. 

Bonnand,  Bishop,  55. 

Bonnet  monkey,  23. 

Boots,  manufacture  of,  in. 

Boyanapalle,  237. 

B5yas,  67. 

Brahaswami,  66. 

Brahma,  184. 

Brahmans  of  Perungandura,  33. 

Brecciated  quartz,  10. 

Buchanania  latifolia,  99. 

Buckingham  canal,  132. 

Buddayapalle   139. 

Budubudukulas,  71. 

Buffaloes,  21,  105. 

Bugga  Vanka,  12,  138. 

Building  materials,  18. 

Bukka  Chennarayudu,  202. 

Bukka  I,  185. 

Bukka,  founder   of  the   Vijayanagar 
Empire,   35. 

Bukkapatnam,  246. 

Bulaki,  61. 

BuUmen,  102,  106. 

Bulls,  105. 


Bungalows,  travellers',  120. 
Buruz,  60. 
Bussy,  M.,  43. 
Bustard,  23. 
Butea  frondosa,  99. 


Cactus,  20. 

Caliph  and  his  rat,  story  of,  195. 
Calotropis  gigantea,  20. 
Campbell,  Dr.  T.  V.,  142,  144. 
Campbell,  Major-General,  48,  50. 
Canal,    the    Kurnool-Cuddapah,  83 

to  85,  120. 
Canthium  didymuni,  99. 
Carissa  carandas,  20,  94. 
Carnatic,  the,  35,  42. 
Cart  tracks  and  bridle  paths,  107. 
Cassia  auriculata,  20. 
Cassia  fistula,  99. 
Castes,  66. 
Cattle  bells,  112. 
Cattle,  food  of,  79. 
Cattle,  manure  from,  73. 
Cattle,    Mysore   and   Nellore    breed 

of,  21. 
Celltombs,  25. 
Census,  53. 
Chalukyan    adveruurei    Vijayaditya, 

26. 
Chalukyans,    western    ana    eastern, 

27. 
Chandanam,  94. 
Chanda  Sahib,  governor   of  Trichi- 

nopoly,  42. 
Chandraditya,  28, 
Chandragiri,  37. 
Chandragiri  province,  35. 
Chapad  and  Mydukur  projects,  85. 
Chaplin,  Mr.  W.  W.,  152. 
Charcoal,  106. 
Chautapalle,  138,  194. 
Cheetah,  22. 
Chekrayapet,  214. 
Chenchunatakam,  63 
Chenchus,  69. 
Chennakesavaswami     temple,     187, 

231. 
Chennakeswaraswami  temple,  184. 
Chennamma,  39. 
Chennampalle,  39. 
Chennangi,  74. 


INDEX 


251 


Chennur,  36,  181. 

Chennur  taluk,  153. 

Chera  or  Kerala,  26. 

Cheyyer  group,  ii,  12. 

Cheyyer  river,  3,  4,  30,  39,  i2o_  241. 

Cheyyer  valley,  9. 

Chikatipalle,  211. 

Chilakampalle,  214. 

Chilamakur,  36. 

Chilla,  93. 

Chindhu  dance,  68. 

Cbinkara  or  Bennett's  gazelle.  23. 

Chinna  althi,  115. 

Chinnadasaripalle.  185. 

Chinnamandem,  224. 

Chinna  Orampad,  246. 

Chinnayakuntapalle  Railway  station, 

211. 
Chintakommadinne,  113,  186. 
Chintakunta,  9. 
Chintakuntabanda,  222. 
Chintakunta  hills,  12. 
Chintalapalle  tank,  87. 
Chitravati  river,  2,    138. 
Chitvel,  3,  159,    168  ;   valley   of,   5, 

6  ;  Sub-Registrar's  office  at,  168  ; 

descriptive  note  of,  242. 
Chloroxylon  swietenia,  99. 
Chodas,  the  Telugu,  30. 
Chola,  Kingdom  and  dynasty,   26  ; 

kings,  27  to  29. 
Cholani,    78,    114,    127,    155,    157; 

staple    food    grain    of    the    black 

cotton  country,  61. 
Cholera,  139. 
Choolya  state,  27. 
Choultries,  120. 
Christians,  54. 
Civil  Justice,  166. 
Clays,  II. 
Clay  slate,  11. 
Climate,  6. 
Cocoanut    trees,    not    tapped     for 

toddy,  164. 
Coffee,  115. 

Communication,  means  of,  118. 
Conglomerates,  11. 
Conjeeveram,  26  to  28,  30,  42, 
Conservancy    of    forests,    prior    to 

Madras  Forest  Act  of  1882,    100  ; 

subsequent   operations,    loi  ;    re- 
cent working  plans,  102. 


Co-operative  credit  society,  223. 

Copper,  12,  18. 

Copper  plate  inscriptions,  24. 

Copper  pots,  112. 

Coppice  with  standard  system  of 
fuel  felling,  loi,   102. 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  45. 

Coromandel,  35. 

Corundum,  16. 

Cotton,  78,  127;  printing  and  dyeing, 
III  ;  ginning  and  pressing  facto- 
ries at  Jammalamadugu,  Proddatur 
and  Pulivendla,  113. 

Cotton,  Sir  Arthur,  83. 

Couvade  (hatching)  custom,  70. 

Cows,  105. 

Cox,  Mr.,  154, 

Crime,  169. 

Crimes,  sensational,  171. 

Criminal  justice,  168. 

Criminal  tribes,  169. 

Crystalline  rocks,  8,  9. 

Cuddapah,  Meteorological  Observa- 
tory at,  6  ;  Bugga  Vanka  near,  12, 
138;  town  on  rocks  of  Kurnool 
formation,  13;  battle  of,  44; 
saffron  works  and  factory  at,  75, 
113;  husking  mills  and  weaving 
factory  at,  113  ;  a  principal  trade 
centre,  114;  a  railway  station, 
121  :  outbreak  of  plague  in,  139, 
Municipal  hospital  in,  141,  176  ; 
high  school  in,  143  ;  London 
Mission  elementary  school  in, 
145;  Deputy  Collector  at,  159; 
district  m  unsifs  court  at,  166; 
a  Municipality,  174;  descriptive 
note  of,  178. 

Cuddapah  basin,  9. 

Cuddapah  district,  boundaries,  lati- 
tude and  longitude  and  area  of,  2  • 
its  transfer  to  the   British,  46 

Cuddapah  melons,  75,  236. 

Cuddapahs  or  Cuddapah  formations. 
8  to  II. 

Cuddapah  slabs,  112,  114  and  121  ; 
use  of,  60. 

Cuddapah  taluk,  2,  3  ;  turmeric  culti- 
vation in,  75  ;  description  of,  177. 

Cultivation,  wet,  73  ;  dry,  75  ;  modern 

changes  in, 79 
Cycads,  99. 


252 


INDEX 


D 

Dabbala  Yerukulas,  69. 

Dabbudapalle,  190. 

Daggupad,  164. 

Damalcheruvu,  41,  42. 

Danavalapad,  29. 

Daniel,  Mr.  J-  K.,  129. 

Danthi,  77. 

Dasabandham  wells,  158, 

Dasaripalle,  203. 

Dasaripalle  fuel  working  circle,  102. 

Dasaris,  71. 

Dasavarman,  30. 

Date  trees,  tapi)ed  for  toddy,  163. 

Davies,  Mr.  R.  W.,  his  scheme  report 
for  the  resettlement  of  the  sub- 
division, 156,  158. 

Deccan,  25,  37,  38,  41J  Sugar  and 
Abkari  Company,  163. 

Decennial  lease  of  renting,  153. 

Deer,  23. 

Deities,  village,  64. 

Delhi,  35. 

Demarcation  of  forests,   107. 

Density  and  growth  of  population. 

Deposits,  geological,  8. 

Deputy  Tahsildars,  159. 

Desamukhi,  148. 

Desay  Marka  Reddi,  230. 

Description,  physical,  i. 

Despondi,  148. 

Devachdda  Maharaja,  39. 

Devadari,  93. 

Devagiri  Ankalamma,  233. 

Devagudipalle,  32. 

Devangas,  68,  108,  no. 

Devaraya  Odaiyai,  36. 

Devuniboova,  62. 

Devunimiila,  61. 

Dhadiyam,  115. 

Dhavaleyarasa,  King  of  the   Banas 
28. 

Dhoor  taluk,  153. 

Diamond  mines,  81. 

Diamonds,  15. 

Diorite,  10,  12, 

Diospyros  chloroxylon,  93,  99. 

Diospyros  ebenum,  99. 

District,  redistribution  of  the,  i; 
shape  and  boundaries,  2  ;  history 
of  the  eastern  division  of  the,  30. 


District  Court,  167. 

District  Munsifs,  166. 

Divisional  charges,  159. 

Divisions,    natural,    7  ;    western,  3 ; 

southern  and  eastern,  4. 
Dodonnoea  viscosa,  94. 
Dogs,  wild,  22. 
Dolls,  106. 
Donga  Dasaris,  169. 
Donga  Woddars,   169. 
Dorasani  Venkatamma,  203. 
Doyle,  Rev.  Fr,  Patrick,  56. 
Dravida,  26,  27. 
Dress,  61. 

Drinking  vessels,  112. 
Dry  cultivation,  75. 
Dry  lands,  resettlement  of,   157. 
D'Souza,  Rev.  Joachim,  55. 
Duck,  23. 

Duddine  Tippa,  246. 
Dudekulas,  58,  109. 
Duggireddi  Venkatreddi,  186. 
Duke  of  Wellington,  46. 
Dupleix,  M.,  43. 
Duvvur,    167;  battle  of,  44;    district 

munsifs  court  at,  167;  descriptive 

note  of,  198. 
Dynasties,  earliest  known,  26. 


E 


Earth  Salt,  method  of  its  manufac- 
ture, its  interference  with  mono- 
poly salt,  161;  its  manufactures 
suppressed,  162. 

Eastern  division,  4,  ghats,  25. 

East  India  Company,  46. 

Economic  condition  of  agricultu- 
rists, 87. 

Education,  54  ;  according  to  reli- 
gions, 143  ;  by  the  missions,  144. 

Educational  Institutions,  144. 

Edum,  116. 

Ekili  rajas,  213,  220. 

Eleodendron  Glaucum,  99. 

Ellamma,  64. 

Epidote,  16. 

Erythroxylon  monogynum,  93. 

Eugenia  alternifolia,  99. 

Eugenia  Jambolana,  93. 

Euphorbia,  20. 

Euphorbia  antiquorum,  20. 


IND  EX 


253 


Euphorbia  neriifolia,  20. 
Euphorbia  tirucalle,  20. 
European  piece  goods,  115. 
Exports,  114. 


Factories,  113. 

Eamines,  127  to  138. 

Fath  Miah,  42. 

Fauna,  21. 

Felis  Jubata,  22. 

Felspar,  9,  10. 

Females,  deficiency  of,  53. 

Fennelly,  Rt.  Rev.    Bishop  Stephen, 

Ficus  religiosa,  fig  tree,  21. 

Ficus  tsiela,  21. 

Fleury,  the  ship,  97. 

Floods,  137,  138. 

Flora,  20. 

Florican,  23. 

Fly  shuttle  slay,  109. 

Food,  human,  61  ;  of  cattle,  79. 

Foreign  liquors,  163. 

Forest  produce,  minor,  105. 

Forests,  their  situation,  area,  admin- 
istration and  character,  92  ;  plant- 
ing and  sowing,  demarcation,  107  ; 
forest  offences,  fire  protection; 
io6. 

Fort  of — Vanipenta,  200  ;  Korrapad, 
201;  Mudireddipalle,  Tippireddi- 
palle,  Chakaralapad,  203  ;  Parna- 
palle,  212  ;  Midipentla,  213  .• 
Nulivedu,  221  ;  Gadikota,  224  ; 
Kottakota,  232  ;  Sidhout,  233. 

French,  the,  43. 

Fuel  reserves,  loi. 

Fuel  working  circles,  102  ;  working 
operations,  103. 


Gaddam  Baligadu,  172. 
Gadelu,  60. 
Gadi,  60. 
Gadikota,  224. 
Gaggula  Tippa,  202. 
Gajapati,  36. 
Gajubendu.  16. 
Gajiila  Balijas,  212. 


Galena,  sulphide  of  lead,   17. 

Galivadu,  221. 

Gamble,  98. 

Game,  22, 

Ganapati  of  VVarangal,  Kakatlya  king, 

34- 
Gandagopala,  32. 
Gandhapurallu,  212, 
Gandikota,  gorge,  3  ;  hills,  6  ;  sima, 

34  to  36  ;  fort,  41  ;  descriptive  note 

of,  191. 
Gandlur,  194. 
Gangamma,  64. 
Gangana,  river,   223. 
Gangaperur,  236,  240. 
Ganja,  164. 
Ganjikunta,  203. 
Garden  crops,  75. 
Gardenia  Gummifera,  99, 
Gardenias,  99. 
Gardenia  turgida,  99. 
Garuda.  184. 
Gathala  fuel  reserve,  loi. 
Geese,  barheaded,  23. 
Gelonium  lanceolatum,  99. 
Geology,    8  ;  industrial    products  of, 

Geriselu,  60. 

German  silver,  materials  of,  112. 

Ghadia,  1 17. 

Giddaliir,   122. 

Ginjee,  43. 

Gneiss,  8,  9,  10,  20. 

Gneissic  series.  8. 

Goa,  162. 

Goats,  21. 

Godavari  district,  distillery  in,  163. 

Godavari  river,    battle  on    the  banks 

of,  34- 
Golconda,  16,  24,  37,  193. 
Golla,  64,  67. 
Gooty  Munsifi,  164. 
Gdpalaswami  Temple,  244. 
G5pal  Reddi,  206. 
Gopavaram,  85. 
Gorru,  76. 
Govinda  raja,  40. 
Govindaswami,    233. 
Govinda  III,   27. 
Grain  measures,   116. 
Granite  veins,  9. 
Granitoid  gneiss,  9. 


254 


INDEX 


Gravel,  8. 

Grazing  and  goat  browsing,  105. 
Green  gram,  79. 
Green  stone,  10. 
Gregory,  Mr.  G.,  152. 
Gribble,  Mr..  128,  130. 
Ground-nut,  79,  114. 
Gudetti  Rfimi  Reddi,  170. 
Gudhi,  117. 

Gumpramanudinne  people,  112. 
Gunjana  river,  80,83,  241. 
Guntaka,  75. 
Guntur  famine,  128. 
Guriginjakona,  194. 
Guriginjakunta,  223. 
Gurramkonda,    41,    42,  45,    48  ;    its 

cession    to     the    Mahrattas   44  ; 

poligars  of,  50. 
Guvvalacheruvu,  hills,    8,  12  ;  ghat, 

41, 
Gypsies,   70. 

H 

Haidar  Ali,  40,  43,  44,  45,  148,  199. 

Hanbury,  Mr.,  153. 

Handlooms,  108,  109, 

Hands,  Rev.  John,  56. 

Hanuman,  71. 

Hardwickia  binata,  99,  100. 

Hariali,  78. 

Harihara  Bukkarayalu,  191. 

Harihara,    founder   of  the     Vijaya- 

nagar  Empire,  35. 
Harihara  II,  36. 
Harpanahalle,  137. 
Harvesting,  79. 
Ha  worth,  Mr.,  123. 
Health,  general,  139. 
Hemicyclia  sepiaria,  99. 
Hemp  drugs,  163,  164. 
Hexandra,  93. 
Heyne,  Dr.,  16. 
High  Schools,  143. 
Hindus,  59. 
History,  political,  24. 
Hoematite,  17. 
Holmespet,  197. 
Hornblende,  9,  lo. 
Hornstone,  16. 
Hoskins,  Wren,  88. 
Houses,  60. 
Howell,  Mr,,  171. 


Howell,  Rev.  W.,  56. 

Hoysalas,  32,  34,  35. 

Hubli,  46. 

Hughly,  97. 

Humidity,  7. 

Husking  mills,  at  Muddanur,    196  ; 

at    Jammalamadugu,     Kamalapu- 

ram,  Cuddapah,  113. 
Hwen  Thsang,  27. 
Hyderabad,  43,  46. 

I 

Tdigas,  68,  164. 

Idupulapaya  palmyra  plantation, 
102,  163. 

Implement  gravels,  14. 

Imports,  115. 

Inagaliir,  30. 

Income  tax,  165. 

Indebtedness  of  the  ryots,  91. 

Indigo,  114. 

Indigo  vats,  refuse  as  manure.  73. 

IndlQr,  33. 

Indra,  184. 

Indra  III,  29. 

Induri  Appayya,  231. 

Industrial  products,  15. 

Infirmities,  141. 

Ingallur  Nadu,  29,  30. 

Inge  Bheema  Reddi,  238. 

Inman,  Rev.  Canon,  57. 

Inoculation,  139. 

Inscriptions  at,  Rayachoti,  219; 
Tsundupalle,  220  ;  Pdrumamilla, 
227  ;  Chenniir,  182  ;  Pendlimarri, 
185;  Chintakommadinne,  186; 
Duvvur,  98 ;  Vanipenta,  200 ; 
Rameswaram,  201  ;  Korrapad, 
Gaggula  Tippa,  202  ;  Palagiri, 
205  ;  Uppalur,  206 ;  Animela, 
207  ;  Vontimitta,  237  ;  Kotapad, 
238  ;  Gangaperiir,  240  ;  Pottapi, 
244  ;  in  Soumyanathaswami  tem- 
ple, 246;  Sidheswaraswanii  temple, 
247. 

Inumbrolu  or  Inumpudoli,  33. 

Inupakolumulu,  203. 

Irasas,  116. 

Iron  ore,  12,  17  ;  oxide,  10, 

Irrigation,  general  and  under  river 
channels,  80 ;  under  tanks  and 
wells,  81. 


INDEX 


255 


Irrigation  works,  83. 

Iruvai  Okati,  63. 

Ixora  parviflora,  20,  94,  99. 


Jackals,  75. 
Jaggery,  74,  164. 
Jails,  171. 

James  and  Mary,  the  ship,  97. 
Jammalamadugu,    Mission   hospital 
at,  57  ;  husking  mills  and  ginning 
factory  at,  113  ;  Mission    medical 
institution    at,     142;     Campbell 
Memorial      school,      caste    girls' 
school   and   Boarding  school    at, 
144;    Deputy  Collector   of,    159; 
Sub-Registrar's     office    at,     168; 
descriptive  note  of,  188. 
Jammalamadugu  taluk,  2,  3,  1S7. 
Jamu,  117, 
Jandras,  220. 
Jangamrazupalle,  lead   workings  of, 

17  ;  valley,  5. 
Jasper,  16. 
Jatra,  64. 

Jesuits,  suppression  of,  55. 
Jinkala  Musalmans,  220. 
Joti,  236. 

Judge,  District,  166. 
Jungle  fowl,  23  ;  sheep,  23. 
Justice,  administration  of,  166;  civil, 

166  ;  criminal,  168. 
Juvvi  tree.   21. 


Kachchi  or  Kanchi    (Conjeeveram\ 
29,  32. 

Kadiri    taluk,   added   to   Anantapur 
district,  I. 

Kaka  Maharaja,  191. 

Kakatiyas  of  Orangal,  34. 

Kakustavijayamu  (Telugu  poem),  39, 
244. 

Kalahasti,  28. 

Kalakada,  42. 

Kalasapad,  5  ;anicut  near,  86,  tank, 
87  ;  Mission  dispensary  at,  142  ; 
elementary  school  at,  145  ;  des- 
criptive note  of,  231. 

Kalikiri.  121,  122;  railway  station. 
218. 


Kalinga,  31. 
Kalivi,  94. 

Kaluvanayanivaru,  221. 
Kaluvaya,  240. 

Kamalapuram,  2,  160;   fuel   planta- 
tion,   100;  railway  station,   121  ; 
railway  accident  near,    123;   pri- 
vate dispensary  at,  142  ;    descrip- 
tive note  of,  204. 
Kamalapuram  taluk,  2,  3,  204. 
Kamal-ud-din,  45. 
Kamaniir,  200. 
Kamar-ud-din,  222. 
Kamil  assessment,  38,  147  ;  survey, 

222. 
Kammas,  66,  68. 
Kampa  I,  35. 
Kanamalopalle,  9  ;  fuel  reserve   and 

working  circle,  102. 
Kandukur,  32. 
Kankar,   19. 
Kanna,  16. 
Kanna  sales,  242. 

Kannekalacheruvu,  the  story  of  the 
^  origin  of  the  name,  246,  247. 
Kannekamma  temple,  197,  200. 
Kantalam,      private    dispensary    at. 

142. 
Kantlam,  116. 
Kanuga  trees,  21,  74. 
Kapila,  83. 
Kiipus,  66. 
Karepaku,  94. 
Karikala  Choia,  26,  28. 
Karla,  16. 

Karnam  ^'eerappa,  2^S. 
Kartikam,  74. 
Kathari  Mangayya,  1S5. 
Katteragandla,  36. 
Kavaligar,  216. 
Kavali  rusums,  223. 
Kazi,  58. 

Kerala  or  Chera,  26. 
Kerosene  oil,  115. 
Kesapuram,  224. 
Khazipet-Sunkesula,  186. 
Kdpaka  or  Kilpauk,  31. 
Kistna,  5.  26. 

Kistvaens  or  cell  tombs,  25,  205. 
Kodide  Kapus,  66. 
Kodur       (Jammalamadugu      taluk). 
190. 


256 


INDEX 


Kodur  (Pullampet  taluk),  33  ;  red- 
sanders  plantation,  98,  100;  fuel 
reserve,  loi ;  fuel  working  circle, 
102  ;  railway  station,  121  ;  mission 
dispensary  at,  142;  mission  pri- 
mary school  at,  145  ;  descriptive 
note  of,  244. 

Koilkuntla  lime  stone,   13. 

Kolar.  28,  122. 

Kolattam,  62. 

Komatis,  68,  114,  197. 

Komtni,  94. 

Kondapuram,  hills,  12;  husking 
mills,  19;  railway  station,  121, 
194. 

Kondavandlu,  230. 

Kondavidu,  Reddis  of,  36. 

Kondur,  33  ;  anicut  near,  39  ;  des- 
criptive note  of,  239. 

Kondur  rajas,  241. 

Kondur  Tippa,  241. 

Koneti  Nayudu,  212. 

Korachas,  169. 

Kornad  cloths,  no. 

Korra,  77,  155. 

Korrapad,  201. 

Korund  or  Corundum,  16. 

Kotalapalle,  194. 

Kotapad,   238. 

Kotapalle  Bakki  Reddi,  238. 

Kothandaramaswami  temple,  237. 

Kotlur,  183. 

Kottakota,  6,  226,  232. 

Krishna  Deva,  182. 

Krishna  Naiker  of  Vijayanagar,    35. 

Krishnaraya,  the  greatest  of  the  Vija- 
yanagar emperors,  36,  192,  200, 
201,  222. 

Krishna  Reddi,  232. 

Krishna  III,  King  of  the  Rashtra- 
kiitas,  29,  30,  201,  205. 

Krupapalle,  leper  asylum  at,  58, 
141,  142,   245. 

Kukudu,  94. 

Kulottunga  I,  Chola  king,  30. 

Kulottunga  III,  31,  32,  182. 

Kumara  Ananta  Raja,  207,  244. 

Kumara  Narasimha  Nayudu,  203. 

Kumara  Nayudu,  213. 

Kumara  Sunki  Reddi,  202. 

Kumphani  Government,  40. 

Kunchams,  116. 


Kunchugattu  Yerukulas,  6q. 
Kunchulu,   69. 
Kunder  river,  2,  44. 
Kunder  series,  13. 
Kunder  valley,  9. 
Kunkumam,  65. 
Kurivi,  94. 

Kurnool-Cuddapah  canal,  83,    120; 
turmeric  cultivation  under  it,  75. 
Kurnools  or  Kurnool  formations,  8, 

9- 
Kurubas,  71,  no,  in. 
Kuruguntapalle,  238. 


Lakkireddipalle,  43,  44,  159;  deputy 
tahsildar  of,  168  ;  descriptive  note 
of,  220. 

Lakshminarasimhaswami        temple, 

185. 

Lambadis,  69,  70. 

Land  revenue  administration,  under 
the  Vijayanagar  Empire,  146 ; 
Visapadi  system,  147  ;  Muham- 
madan  system,  147;  in  the  i8th 
century,  148. 

Languages,  54. 

Langur,  23. 

Lankamalais,  5.  92,  99  ;  fuel  work- 
ing circle,  102,  103  ;  timber 
fellings,  103. 

Latchmi,  goddess  of- riches,  16. 

Lavu  vadlu,  74. 

Lead,  12. 

Leaf-manure,  73. 

Leases,  decennial,  153  ;  triennial, 
150. 

Lebaka,  31,  34,  39-      ' 

Lebbeck,  99. 

Leopards,  22. 

Leper  asylum,  58,  141,  142,  245. 

Lime,   19. 

Limestones,  8,  9,  12,  18. 

Lineal  m<asures,  116. 

Linga  Balijas,  63 

Lingala  Vanka,  215. 

Lingayats,  63,  219. 

Liquid  measures,  116. 

Liquor,  163. 

Lithic  inscriptions,  24,  monuments, 
26. 

Litigation,  167. 


INDEX 


««7 


Local    boards,    174;   their  receipts 

and  expenditure,  175. 
Local  self-government,  174. 
London  Mission,  56. 
Loris,  23. 

Lower  Secondary  schools,  144. 
Lutheran  Mission,  57. 


M 


Maba  buxifolia,  93,  99. 
MacCartie,  Mr.,  133,  187. 
Macdonald,  Mr.,  murder  of,  171,  181. 
Macfarlane,  Rev.  G.  H.,  57. 
Madanapalle,  and    Vayalpad    taluks 

added  to  Chittoor  district,  2. 
Madanapalle,       district        munsif's 

court,  1 65. 
Maddicheruvu,  iron  furnace  at,  17. 
Maddimadugu   fuel    working    circle, 

102. 
Mademma,  189. 
Madhavaram,    4 ;   its    silk    weaving, 

no,  112,    115;    descriptive    note 

of,  237. 
Madigas,  67,  68. 

Madras  and  Southern  Mahratta  rail- 
way, 121. 
Madurantakam,  31. 
Madurantakan-Pottapi-Chola,  31. 
Madurantaka-Uttama-Chola,  31. 
Mahabharata,  32. 
Mahavishnu,  184. 
Mahazid  Khan,  41. 
Mahrattas,  38,  41,  44. 
Maidukur    project,  85  ;    descriptive 

note  of,  203. 
Mailavaram,  6g, 
Makam  Chenchiah,  173. 
Malaria,  139,  140. 
Malas,  67,  68  ;  Weavers,  loS. 
Malepad,  27. 
Malinenipatnam,  222. 
MalleniKondas,  239. 
Malleswaraswami  temple,   223 
Mamandur,  31, 

MamiUapalle  fuel  working  circle,  102. 
Mandavya  river,  217. 
Mangapatnam,  railway  disaster  near, 

124. 
Mango  trees,  20, 
Mantapampalle,  6. 

33 


Mantolu  Sahib  (Munro),  Colonel,  40. 

Manumasiddhi,  32  ;  his  settlement 
of  a  land  dispute  of  the  Brahmans 
of  Perungandura,  33,  247. 

Manuring,  method  of,  73. 

MarellatViadaka,  217. 

Margosa  trees,  20. 

Markets,  weekly,  175. 

Marraya  Konigii,  94. 

Masthan  Sahib,  59,  66. 

Matla  Ananta,  39,  244. 

Matia  (Matli)  princes,  38,  241,  247. 

Matli.  224. 

Mattu,  117. 

Mayalur,  private  dispensary  at,  142. 

Measures,  grain,  liquid  and  lineal, 
116  ;  of  time,  1 17. 

Medaravandlu,  245. 

Medical  institutions,  public,  141  ; 
private,  142. 

Meer  Jumla,  193. 

Meera  Khan,  186, 

Meer  Sahib,  Governor  of  Gurram- 
konda,  40,  44,  213,  722. 

Megasthenes,  Greek  geographer,  26. 

Melons  of  Cuddapah,  75,  236  ;  of 
Sidhout,  115. 

Melpadi,  29. 

Memecylon  angustifolium,  99. 

Merpaka-Nadu,  31. 

Merugulacheruvu,  221. 

Metal,  industries  in,  112;  work  in 
Vontimitta,  199. 

Metamorphic  series,  8. 

Metla  guntaka,  77. 

Mhote,  83. 

Mica,  9. 

Midde,  60. 

Mills,  husking,  79. 

Mimusops  hexandra  and  elengi,  99 

Mimusops  Indica,  93. 

Mines,  diamond,  81. 

Miskin  Vali,  212. 

Missions,      Roman    Catholic,    55  ; 
London,   56;    S.P.G.,    57;   Luth- 
eran, 57^ 
Modas  ur  Salt  mounds,  161. 
Modern  changes  in  cultivation,  79. 
Moharram,  58. 

Moir,  Mr.  T.  E.,  his  scheme  reports, 
156  ;  his  remarks  on  the  culti- 
vation of  groundnut,  80, 


258 


INDEX 


Molasses,  163. 

Monkey,  23. 

Monsojn,  N.E.,  125  ;   S.W.,  126. 

Morari  Rao,  42. 

ivlotakatla.  222. 

Motati  Kapus,  65. 

Mouse  deer  o'tragalus  memimna,  23. 

Muddanur,  27;  husking  mills,  79, 
196  ;  descriptive  note  of,  196. 

Mudireddipalle,  203. 

Mudivemu,  26. 

Muhammad  All  Khan,  42 

Muhammadans,  their  invasion,  34  ; 
their  invasion  rolled  back  by  tne 
Hindus,  35  ;  their  fight  with  the 
Vjayanagir  empire,  37  ;_  their 
system  ot  land  revenue  administra- 
tion,  147. 

Munammadans,  42,  45,  48  ;  as  weav- 
ers, 108  ;  as  boot  and  shoe-mak- 
ers, III  ;  brass,  copper  and  bell- 
metal  workers  and  stone  carvers, 
112  ;  as  shopkeepers,  114;  as  tree 
tappers,  164  ;  as  masons  and  build 
'^'rs,  220  ;  as  tanners,  222  ;  as  shoe 
and  sandal  manufaciureres,  227  ; 
as  bangle  makers,  212  -.  theii  wor- 
ship of  the  Hindu  god  Narasi'iiha- 
swami,  196. 

Muhurtaii),  1 17. 

Mukkanti-Kaduvetti,  33. 

Mukkanliswara  temple,  189. 

Mukkonda,  202. 

Mukundapuram,  240. 

Mulastaneswaraswami  temple,  243. 

Mulikinadu,  34,  36. 

Munelli,  37,  232. 

Mungari  pairu,  77. 

Municipal  government,  175. 

Munro,  Sir  Thomas,  3,  38,  40,  45, 
48,  ;28,  137,148,  149;  Governor 
of  Madras,  153,156;  his  work 
as  principal  Collector,  41  ;  his 
reduction  of  the  Poligars,  47  ;  his 
method  of  dealing  with  them,  49  ; 
his  ryotvvari  j:etclement  approved 
by  the  Madra-^  Government,  50  ; 
and  by  the  Drectors,  51  .  h  s 
rates  of  as'^essment,  150  ;  story  of 
his  grant  of  inam  for  the  Nara- 
simhaswami  temple,  240. 

Munsifs,  District  and  Village,  166. 


Muntha,  j  16. 

Munutanalugu,  63. 

Muredu,  116. 

Musalnayadu,  239. 

Musalniiyani  Cheruvu,  239. 

Musnti.  93. 

Muzaffar  Jung,  43,  221. 

Mysore,  plateau,  4,  26,  44  ;  breed  ol 
cattle,  21  ;  treaty  of,  45;  Indus- 
trial and  Arts  exhibition,  110. 


N 


NabhikSt,  180. 

Niigarajupet,  London  Mission 
School  at,  145. 

Nag  reddipalle  railway  station    ^45. 

Nallamalai  group,  12. 

Nallainalai  hills,  2,  3,  5,  9.  92,  99, 
io5,  112  ;  fuel  and  t  mber  working 
circle,  102  ;  timber  fellings,  103. 

Nallavadlu,  74. 

Natla  Vagu,  201. 

Nandalur,  4,  31,  loi,  102  ;  fuel 
working  circle,  102  ;  railway  sta- 
tion, 121  ;  railway  oispensary, 
142  ;  Lower  secondary  school, 
144  ;  district  munsifs  court,  166, 
descriptive  note  of,  245. 

Nandimandalam,  187. 

Nandyal,  121,  122. 

Nandyalampet,  district  munsifs 
court,  167  ;  descriptive  note  of, 
203. 

Nandyal  shales,  13. 

Narada,  184. 

Narapanayani  Pina  Avubala  Nayudu, 
200. 

Narasimha  Deva  Raya,  205,  206,  222. 

Narasiii  ha  of  Aliob  lam,  69. 

Narasimha  Reddi,  172. 

Narasimhaswami  temple,  59,  189, 
24^0. 

Narasimha  III,  32, 

Nawabs,  of  Gandikota  and  Cudda- 
pah,  38  ;  nf  Cuddapah,  39  to  44, 
180  ;  of  Arcot,  41  ;  of  Kandaniir 
( Kurnool),  4T,  43 ;  of  Savanore  43 

Nazir  Jung,  4:. 

Neelapuram,  203. 

Neiknamabad,  179. 


INDEX 


259 


Neiknam  Khan,  179. 
Nekunampet,  194. 
Nemaliadugu,  94. 
Neredu,  93. 

Ncrjee  limestones,  13,  18. 
Nerusupalle,  29, 
Newbold,  Captain,  16. 
Nidujuvvi,  208. 
Nim  tree,  100. 

Nissanka  Pratapa  Raja,  219. 
Nizam,  40  to  42. 
Nulivedu,  221. 


0 


Obalam, valley,   5;    descriptive  note 

_  of,  239. 

Obalapathi,  63. 

Obannapet,  194. 

Occupations,  54,  108,  113. 

Oddes,  68. 

Odeya,  a  title    of  the    rulers    of  the 

Vijayanagar  provinces,  36. 
Odina  Wodier,  99. 
Onutulakona,  185. 
Opium,  163. 
Opuntia  dil'enii,  20. 
Oranges  of  Velpula,  115. 
Ordeal,  trial  by,  33. 
Orthoclase,  10. 
Oudh  Regulations,  150. 


Paddy,  165  ;  its  cultivation  and 
method  of  sowing,  73  ;  its  seasons 
and  varieties,  74. 

Padigala  Konda  Reddi  or  Kondayya, 

195- 
Padlu,  116. 
Padma  Sales,  no,    212;  their   caste 

dispute  with  the  Jandras,  220. 
Pakanadu,  31,  34. 
Pakanati  Kapus,  66. 
Pakarashtra,  30. 
Pakka  Seer,  116. 
Pala,  93. 
Palagiri,  30,  205. 
Paietti  Gangamma,  224. 
Palkonda   hills,    2,   3,    92,  99,    102, 

103,  114;   bullmen   fuel   working 

circle,  102  ;  timber  fellings,  103. 

34 


Pallavas,  26,  27,  32. 

Palmyras,   102  ;    tapped    for   toddy, 

163. 
Palnati  Arikalamma,  233. 
Palugurallapalle,  233. 
Palugurallu,  212. 
Pamaleru,  246. 
Pamidi,  191. 
Panchalingalakona    waterfall,     215, 

240. 

Panch  seer,  115. 
Pandavagullu,  25. 
Pandums,  it6. 

Pandya  and  Pandyas,  26,  32,  34. 
Paniam  series,  13. 
Papaghni   river,    2,  3,  28,  102,    120, 
217  ;  group,  12. 

Paraiyans,  67. 

Paramatakona,  225. 

Parantaka  I,  Chola  king,  28. 

Parnapad,  202. 

Parnapalle,  8,  138,  211. 

Partridges,  23. 

Pata  Cuddapah,  178. 

Patchai  benou,  16. 

Pathan  chiefs,  43. 

Patravandlu,  203. 

Pattapurayi,  239. 

Patte  Khan,  206. 

Pattur  fuel  working  circle,  102. 

Pattu  Sales,  242. 

Pea  fowl,  23. 

Pedda  althi,  115. 

Peddakanti  kapus,  66. 

Peddakudala,  216. 

Pedda  madaka,  78. 

Peddamma,  68. 

Pedd  mudiyam,  27,  112,  189. 

Pedda  Orampad,  246. 

Peddapasupula,  113. 

Peddinayaka,    his    land     survey    of 

Pottapi  nadu,  34. 
Penagalur,  33,  247. 
Pendlimarri,    tank,   87;    descriptive 

note  of,  185. 
Pennaperur,  236,  240. 

Penner  river,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  27,  loi, 
115,  137,  138,  241  ;  blown  sands 
of,  15  -,  lithic  monuments  in  its 
neighbourhood,  26, 

Pentas,  105. 


26o 


INDEX 


Penukonda,  35  ;  transfer  of  the  head 

quarters  of  the  Vijayanagar  empire 

to,  37. 
PerUfiiallaraja,  39. 
Perungandura,  33  ;   brahmans,   their 

land     dispute   settled    by    Manu- 

masiddhi,  247. 
Phaseolus  Mungo   79. 
Phoenix,  the  ship,  97. 
Physical  description,  i. 
Picottah,  83. 
Pidugupalle  tank,  87, 

Pig,  23- 

Piler,  41,  42. 

Pinchanadi,  3,  217. 

Pista.ite,  9,  10. 

Plague,  33  ;  its  outbreak  at  Cud- 
dapah,  139. 

Plantains,  75. 

Plantation,  the  Pullampet  and  Red- 
dipalle  fuel,  100, 

Pleistocene,  9. 

Plovers,  23. 

Pogada,  93. 

Poleramma,  64. 

Police,  170. 

Poligars,  38.  47. 

Political  history,  24. 

Polur,  29. 

Pondalur,  39. 

Pondicherry,  43. 

Pong^n-.ia  glabra,  21. 

Population,  density  and  growth,  52  ; 
emigration,  birth  and  death  rate, 
sexes,  5  5,  parent  tongue,  educa- 
tion, occupat'Ons,  54 ;  religious 
and  social  life,  63,  71  ;  castes,  66. 

Porter,  Rev.  Edward,  57. 

Porumamilla,  34,  35,  121  ;  tank  and 
its  construction,  81  ;  fuel  working 
circle,  102  ;  descriptive  note  of, 
227. 

Pot'adurti,  36. 

Pottapi,  30,  32,  33,  34,  35,  39,  243. 

Pottapi  sima,  39. 

Pottipad,  28. 

Prataparudra,  34,  35,  36,  247. 

Prehistoric  remains,  25. 

Preventive  force,  Salt  and  Abkari, 
164. 

Prices  of  food  grains,  157. 

Pringle,  Mr.  A.  T.,  95. 


1   Prithvlswara,  312. 

Proddatur,  Cotton  pressing  and  gin- 
ning factories  of,  109,  113,  114; 
a  primipal  trade  centre,  114  ;  the 
wealthiest  town  in  the  district, 
121  ;  dispensary  at,  142  ;  schools 
in,  144  ;  distr'ct  munsil's  court  at, 
166  ;  Sub- Registrar's  office  at, 
168  ;  descriptive  note  of,  197. 

Proddatur  taluk,  2,  ig'>. 

Pceraspermun  suberifolium,  94,  99. 

Pterocarpus  santalinus,  94. 

Public  health,  139. 

Puckle,  Mr.,  131. 

Pulijudam,  62, 

Pulivendla,  34,  35,  36,  48,  114; 
weekly  fair  at,  iii,  175;  ginning 
factory  at,  113  ;  dispensary  at, 
142  ;  Sub-Registrar's  office  at, 
168  ;  descriptive  note  of,  210. 

Pulivendla  taluk,  2,  3  ;  cultivation 
of  ground-nut  in,  80  ;  descriptive 
note  of,  208. 

Pulivesham,  58. 

Pullampet,  30,  38 ;  fuel  plantation 
and  working  circle,  100,  102  ; 
weaving  industry  in,  109  ;  embroi- 
dery work  in,  no;  Sub-Regis- 
trar's office  at,  168  ;  descriptive 
note  of,  242. 

Pullampet  taluk,  2,  4;  turmeric 
cultivation  in,  75  ;  descriptive 
note  of,  240. 

Pullan^i  river,  241,  246. 

Pulugunilti  sIma,  39. 

Punganur,  28,  41,  122. 

Pushpagiri    63,  183. 

Putaleshwar,  warm  springs  of,  12. 

Putti,  116. 


0 


Quadrumana,  23. 
Quails,  23. 
Quartz,  10. 
Quartzites,  8,  9,  20. 

R 

Rachapalle,  224. 
Racheruvu,  231. 
Ragi,  62,  74,  114. 


INDEX 


261 


Raichur,  167. 

Railways,  projected  lines,  121  ;  acci- 
dents, 123. 

Rainfall,  6. 

Rainfall  and  seasons,  125. 

Rajahmundry,  164. 

Rajampet,  fuel  working  circle,  102; 
a  trade  centre,  114;  dispensary 
at,  142  ;  Sub-Collectorate,  150  ; 
weekly  market  at,  175  ;  descriptive 
note  of,  241. 

Rajarajadeva  III,  31. 

Rajaraja  I,  29,  31. 

Rajendra  Cholalll,  32,  33,  34. 

Rakshasas,  184. 

Rama,  his  victory  over  Ravana,  3. 

Raraaraja,  the  great  Hemraj  of 
Muhammadan   historians,  36,  37, 

193- 
Ramayya  Pantulu,  Mr.  J.,  180. 

Rameswaram,  200, 

Rangarazus  or  Rangaris,  iii. 

Ranga,  son  of  Timmala,  37. 

Rashtrakutas,  27,  28. 

Ravikas,  61,  no. 

Rayachoti,  rough  blankets  of  no, 
III;  dispensary  at,  142  ;  Govern- 
ment training  school  at,  144 ; 
Deputy  Collector  of,  159;  district 
munsifs  court  at,  167;  Sub- 
Registrar's  office  at,  168;  descrip- 
tive note  of,  21S. 

Rayachoti  taluk,  2,4,  217. 

Rayakapus,  239. 

Rayalcheruvu,  194. 

Rayavaram,  217. 

Ra^us,  187, 

Reddipalle  fuel  plantation,  100. 

Reddis  of  kondavldu,  36. 

Red  ferruginous  soils,  5,  6  ;  their 
classification,  154. 

Redistribution  of  districts,  i. 

Redsanders  plantation,  at  k6dur,  98, 
100,  244  ;  in  the  Pullampet  valley, 
102. 

Redsanders  tree,  97  ;  its  uses,  94. 

Redwood  posts,  95. 

Regadipalle,  194. 

Regaror  black  cotton  soils,  5  ;  their 
classification,  153,  154. 

Registration,  167. 

Relief  works,  famine,  130. 


Religions,  high  percentage  of 
Muhammadans,  the  Christians, 
54 ;  Roman  Catholics,  55  ;  the 
London  Mission,  54,  56  ;  the 
S.P.G.  Mission,  54,  57  ;  the 
Lutheran  Mission,  57  ;  religious 
practices  and  superstitions,  64. 

Religious  life,  63 — 66. 

Renadu,  27,  34. 

Renandu,  27. 

Renigunta,  4,  167. 

Resettlement,  156  ;  of  dry  lands, 
157  ;  of  wet  lands,  158  ;  of  dasa- 
bandham  well  lands,  158  ;  finan- 
cial results  of,  159. 

Revenue  history,  153,  146  ;  under 
Vijayanagar  empire,  146  ;  under 
the  Muhammadans,  147  ;  in  the 
i8th  century,  148. 

Revenue  settlement,  village  settle- 
ment of,  1800-01,  ryotwari  settle- 
ment of  1801-02,  149;  triennial 
leases,  150  ,  Munro's  views  there- 
on, 151  ;  ryotwari  system,  151. 

Rice,  115. 

River  Channels,  80. 

Rivers,  2. 

Roads  in  1854,  118;  extensions 
during  famine,  119;  present  ad- 
ministration, 119;  avenues,  120. 

Robinson,  Mr.,  123. 

Roches  Moutonnes,  8. 

Rock  areas,  description  of,  8. 

Roman  Catholic  Mission,  55. 

Romany,  70. 

Rugs,  no. 

Rumphius,  95. 

Russel,  Mr.  J.  W.,  153. 

Rusums,  45. 

Ryots,  their  indebtedness,  91. 

Ryotwari  settlement  of  1801-02, 
149. 


s 


Sadasiva,  emperor,  36,  37,  39,  186. 
Safi'ron,  works,  75  ;  factory  at   Cud- 

dapah,  113. 
Sagiler,  river,  2,  3,  34,  226  ;  proiect, 

86,  135. 
Saiyid    Khaja     Ghouse    Mahiuddin 

darga,  227. 


262 


INDEX 


Sakali,  33  to  35. 

Sakali  Kodur,  33. 

Saktibanda,  65. 

Sales,  68,  108,  no. 

Salt,  115  ;  former  sources  of  supply, 
monopoly  salt,  161  ;  present  sour- 
ces of  supply,  162. 

Salt  mounds,  161. 

Samalkot,  163. 

Sambhar^  22. 

Sancherla  fuel  working  circle,  102. 

Sandals,  manufacture  of,  in. 

Sandal  sowing,  105. 

Sandibondi,  61. 

Sandgrouse,  23. 

Sandstone,  8,  11,  20. 

Sanipaya,  222. 

Sankaranthi,  59, 

Sankavaram,  230. 

Sannavadlu,  74. 

Sanskrit  Mahabharata,  32. 

Sapindus  emarginatus,  94,  99. 

Sarapappu,  114,  222. 

Saris,  no,  11 1. 

Sashagrundipuram,  igi. 

Sashtangamulu,  67. 

Scarcities  subsequent  to  the  great 
famine,  134. 

Schools,  143. 

Seasons,  125  ;  for  paddy  cultivation, 
74  ;  series  of  bad,  129, 

Selection  system  of  timber  felling, 
103. 

Seringapatam,     40,    44 ;     treaty    of, 

45- 
Seshachalams,    2,    3,    4,    42,    99 ; 
timber    working    plan    for,    103  ; 
workers  in  wood  near,  in. 
Setti  Balijas,  238. 

Settigunta,    home    of   doll    makers, 
106  ;   wood   carvers   of,  in  ;  des- 
criptive note  of,  245. 
Settivaripalle,  202. 
Settlement   department,  early  opera- 
tions of,  154. 
Settlement,  the  village  —  of  1800-01, 
and   ryotwari   of   1801-02,     149  ; 
triennial    leases,     150;    Munro's 
views    thereon,     151  ;    decennial 
leases,  153. 
Shales,  9,  11,  13. 
Sheep,  21,  105. 


Sheep  and  goats,   penning  them  fo:* 

manure,  76. 
Sheep  fair  of  Simhadripuram,  216. 
Sheikhs,  58. 

Shoes,  manufacture  of,  in. 
Shorea  tumbaggaia  and  talura,  99. 
Siddhavattam  sima,  35,  39. 
Siddhavatteswaraswami  temple,  235. 
Siddheswaraswami  temple,  235. 
Sidhout   or  Siddhavattam,   30,    38 ; 
fort,  44  ;  fuel  working  circle,  102  ; 
melons,  115  ;  dispensary  at,  142  ; 
headquarters   of  the  district,  152, 
181  ;     Sub-Registrar's    office    at, 
168;  descriptive  note  of,  235. 

Sidhout  taluk,  2,  4,  234. 

Silk  weaving,  no. 

Silpls,  112. 

Simhadripuram,  weekly  fair  at,  194  ; 
private  hospital  at,  142  ;  descrip- 
tive note  of,  216. 

Simhavishnu  line  of  kings,  27. 

Sirvelj  122. 

Slates,  8,  n,  19. 

Small-pox,  140. 

Snipe,  23. 

Social  life,  66. 

Soils,  5. 

Somapalle,  29. 

Somasila,  2,  240. 

Somayaji,  34. 

Soremati,  battle  of,  29. 

Soumyanathaswami  temple,  246. 

Southern  division,  4. 

Sowing,  73. 

S.P.G.  Mission,  57. 

Spices,  115. 

Spur  fowl,  23. 

Sriharikota,  69. 

Sri  Venkateswara  temple,  179. 

Stamps,  164. 

State  granary  of  Gandikota,  3. 

Steatite,  212. 

St.  Leger,  Colonel,  50. 

Stonework,  112. 

Storms,  137. 

Stratified  rocks,  8. 

Stream  bunding,  106. 

Strychnos  nux-vomica,  93,  99. 

Strychnos  potatorum,  93. 

Stuart,  Major,  154. 

Subbamma,  T.,  172. 


INDEX 


263 


Sub-division,  the  r'^oettlement  of, 
158. 

Sub-registrars,  168. 

Suddapalle   83. 

Sugalis,  70,  169. 

Sugar,  115. 

Sugarcane,  74. 

Sunkesula,  83. 

Superstitions,  64. 

Surabhu  valley,  29,  81,  209. 

Survey  of  the  Cuddapah  district  by 
the  king  of  Golconda,  38  ;  of 
Pottapinadu  by  Peddinayaka,  34. 


Table  of  weights,  115, 

Tada,  94. 

Tadpatri  cotton  ginning  and  pressing 

factories,  109,  114. 
Tadpatri  plain,  5. 
Tahsildars    and    deputy    tahsildars, 

159- 

Talikota,  battle  of,  37,  40,  179, 

Tallaproddatiir,  194. 

Tamarind  topes,  20. 

Tangatur,  4,  31,  39  ;  district  munsif's 
court  at,  167  ;  head  quarters  of 
the  Matla  princes,  247  ;  descrip- 
tive note  of,  247. 

Tangedu,  20. 

Tanjai  or  Tanjore,  29. 

Tank  irrigation,  80. 

Tanks  at,  Porumamilla  and  Badvel, 
5,  227  ;  at  PoruHTamilla  construct- 
ed by  Baskara,  35  ;  at  Badvel 
constructed  by  Anantaramaraju, 
39  ;  at  Lebaka,  39  ;  of  Viraballi, 
223;  of  Kalasapad,  231  ;  of 
Vontimitta,  _237  ;  of  Settigunta, 
245  ;  of  Orampad,  246  ;  of 
PenagaKir,  247  ;  of  Kamalapuram, 
205. 

Teal,  23. 

Tellabendu,  16. 

Telugu  Chodas,  30. 

Temperature,  7. 

Temples  at,  Ahobilam  in  the  Nalla- 
malais,  19  ;  Palagiri,  restored  by 
Bhima  Maharaja,  30 ;  Athirala, 
34  ;  PondaliJr,  39  ;  Sidhout,  39  ; 
of  Virabhadraswami  at  Rayachoti, 

63. 
Temple,  Sir  Richard,  131,  132. 


Terminalia  chebula,  tomenfrosa  and 
pallida,  99. 

Thandava  Patagandlu,  172. 

^"himma  Nayudu,  193. 

Thiti  Mallugadu,  172. 

Thomba,  219. 

Thornhill,  Mr.  G.,  130,  162. 

Thrighavari  Deva  Maharaja,  231. 

Thuniakonda  fuel  reserve,  loi. 

Thumus,  116. 

Tigers,  22. 

Tikkana  Somayaji,  32. 

Tikka  or  Gandagopala,  32,  33. 

Timber  and  timber  operations,  103. 

Timber  transit  rules,  106. 

Timmala,  36,  37,  193. 

Tippireddipalle,  203. 

Tipu  Sultan,  40,  44,  45,  148,  212. 

Tirumala  Madhya  Ahobilam,  183. 

Tirumalaraja  Matla,  39. 

Tirupati,  2,  4,  8,  loi,  112,  114, 
115;  lower,  40. 

Tiruvengalanatha  Raja,  40. 

Toddy,  163. 

Togatas,  68,   108,  no. 

Tokavadlu,  74. 

Tondiarpet,  164. 

Toncur,  215. 

Tots,  8. 

Trade,  108,  113. 

Tragalus  Memimna  or  Mouse  deer, 
23. 

Transplanting,  73. 

Trap  dykes,  10. 

Traps,  9,  12. 

Travellers'  bungalows  and  choul- 
tries, 120. 

Trial  by  ordeal,  33. 

Tribes  69,  criminal,  169. 

Trichinopoly,  42. 

Triennial  leases,  150. 

Trilochana  Pallava,  26. 

Tsalladamulu,  61. 

Tsoudu,  60. 

Tsundupalle,  220. 

Tummala  vanka,  234. 

Tummalfir,  185. 

Tungabhadra,  83. 

Turmeric,  75,  114,  115 


U 


Udayagiri,  35,  36. 
Ullinda,  93. 


264 


INDEX 


Unions,  174. 

Uppalur,  4  ;  poligar  of,  50  ;  silk 
weaving  industry  at,  no  ;  descrip- 
tive note  of,  206. 

Upparapalle,  239;  fuel  plantation, 
100. 

Upparas,  68,  161,  162. 

Urampad,  124. 

Urutur,  56. 

Uti,  93. 

Utukur  tank,  breach  of,  138. 


Vaccination,  141. 

Vadyanam,  61. 

Vagatikona  fuel  reserve,  100,  loi. 

Vaghi  tree,  100. 

Vaidumbas,  29. 

Vaisakham,  73, 

Vallur,  32,  34,  182. 

Vangimalla,  223. 

Vanipenta,  106,    112  ;  lead  workings 

near,    17;   brass  workers   of,  106, 

112  ;  descriptive  note  of,  199. 
VannQramma,       the       only     female 

poligar,  203. 
Varikunta,  37. 
Vayalpad   and    Madanapalle    taluks 

added  to  Chittoor  district,  2. 
Velanadu  Kapus,  66. 
Veledu,  116. 
Veligallu,  22,  221. 
Veligonda    hills,    2,    4,   9,    92,    99 ; 

timber  fellings,  103. 
Vellalas,  33. 
Velpulakona,  239. 
Velpula,  oranges  of,  115. 
Vempalle,   2,   3,    28  ;  dispensary  at, 

142  ;    district    munsif's    court   at, 

167  ;  descriptive  note  of,  209. 
Vemula,  48,  213. 
Venkatadri,  203, 
Venkatapathi,  37,  231. 
Venkataramaraja,  39,  40. 
Venkatesa,  71. 

Venkateswaraswami  temple,  189 
Venugdpalaswami  temple,  239. 
Vighadia,  117. 
Vijayaditya,  26. 
Vijaya  Gandagopala,  34. 
Vijayalaya,  28. 


Vijayanagar  empire,  16,  24,  41  ; 
founded  by  Harihara  and  Bukka, 
35  ;  rolls  back  the  Muhammadan 
invasion,  35  ;  its  history,  35  ;  its 
policy  of  appointing  relatives  of 
the  reigning  emperors  as  viceroys 
of  provinces,  35  ;  its  administra- 
tive units,  36  ;  the  Muhammadan 
confederation  against  it,  37  ;  its 
power  broken  at  the  battle  of 
Talikota,  37 ;  its  capital  trans- 
ferred to  Penukonda,  37  ;  again 
to  Chandragiri,  37 ;  its  final 
overthrow  by  the  king  of 
Golconda,  37. 

Vikrama  Chola,  31. 

Village  deities,  64. 

Village  Munsifs,  166. 

Villages,  59. 

Village  settlement  of  1800-01,  149. 

VIraballi,  223. 

Virabhadraswami  temple,  63,  185, 
219. 

VIra  Someswara,  32. 

Visapadi  system,   147. 

Vishnuvardhana,  189. 

Vitex  altissima,  94. 

Vitex  pubescens,  99. 

Volcanic  rocks,  8. 

Vontimitta,  6,  12,  102  ;  valley,  4,  9; 
fuel  working  circle,  102;  descrip- 
tive note  of,  237. 

Vows,  65. 

Vrishabhasurudu,  210. 

Vura  Kunta,  21. 


w 


Warangal,  34. 

Warm  springs,  12. 

Weavers,  castes  of,  108  ;  condition 
of,  109, 

Weaving,  cotton,  109  ;  silk,  blankets 
and  rugs,  no;  cotton  printing 
and  dyeing,  in. 

Webera  corymbosa,  94. 

Weekly  markets,  175. 

Weights  and  measures,  115. 

Weights,  table  of,  115. 

Wellesley,  Colonel,  46. 

Wells,  irrigation  under,  81  ;  treat- 
ment of  lands  under,  154. 


INDEX 


265 


Western  division,  3. 

Wet  lands,  cultivat'on  of,  73 ;  re- 
settlement of,  158. 

Wheat,  115. 

Whitehead,  Mr.  T,  A.,  97. 

Wild  date,  ^9. 

Wild  dog,  22. 

Willshaw,  Captain,  97. 

Winds,  7. 

Witfmann,  Rev.  j.  N.,  57. 

Wolves,  22. 

Wood,  work  in,  iii. 

Wreath  of  golden  flowers,  triump- 
hant, legend  of,  3,  217. 


Yali,  198. 
Yanadis,  69. 
Yarn,  109,  115. 
Yappirala,  239. 
Yelamakapus,  66. 
Yellamarasayya,  36. 
Yellammadevata  temple,  182. 
Yellappa  Nayanigadu,  186. 


Yenugula  Papa  Nayudu,  191. 

Yerraballa,  215. 

Yerra  bendu,  16. 

Yerragudipad,  122,  198. 

Yerraguntla  5  ;  husking  mills  at,  79  ; 
railway  station,  121,  197  ;  where 
Cuddapah  slabs  are  entrained, 
113;  unfashioned  prehis'oric 
tombstones  found  near,  25  • 
descriptive  note  of,  208. 

Yerraguntlakota,  hill  range,  8  ;  head- 
quarters of  the  Matla  princes,  93  ; 
fuel  reserve,  loi  j  iron  furnace  at, 

17- 

Yerrakonda,  191. 

Yerramanenipalem,  222. 

Yerukula  Nancharamma,  70. 

Yerukulas,  69,  in. 

Yeruva  division,  34. 

Yetur,  weekly  fair  at,  194;  descrip- 
tive note  of,  195. 


Zadigam,  76. 


\^i 


University  of  California  Library 
Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


APR  1 1  2005 


,  SOUTHERN  REGION* 


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